We are ready to represent the best custom paper writing assistance that can cope with any task like Cisco even at the eleventh hour. The matter is that we posses the greatest base of expert writers. Our staff of freelance writers includes approximately 300 experienced writers are at your disposal all year round. They are striving to provide the best ever services to the most desperate students that have already lost the hope for academic success. We offer the range of the most widely required, however, not recommended for college use papers. It is advisable to use our examples like Cisco in learning at public-education level. Get prepared and be smart with our best essay samples cheap and fast! Get in touch and we will write excellent custom coursework or essay especially for you.
Cisco Systems, Inc. is the worldwide leader in networking for the Internet. Ciscos Internet Protocol-based (IP) networking solutions are the foundation of the Internet and most corporate, education, and government networks around the world. Cisco provides the broadest line of solutions for transporting data, voice and video within buildings, across campuses, or around the world.
Cisco was founded in 184 by a group of computer scientists from Stanford University. Since the companys inception, Cisco engineers have been prominent in advancing the development of IP- the basic language to communicate over the Internet and in private networks. The companys tradition of innovation continues today with Cisco creating leading products and key technologies that will make the Internet more useful and dynamic in the years ahead. These technologies include advanced routing and switching, voice and video over IP, optical networking, wireless, storage networking, security, broadband, and content networking.
From Cisco’s business area we can easily define its strategic business intent. The strategic business intent of Cisco is
“To become a leader in providing end-to-end networking solutions; to succeed in each individual line-of-business segment targeted; to forge strategic partnerships; to spearhead data/voice/video integration efforts; to recruit, retain and develop the top 10 percent of technology employees; to become number one in sales of high-end networking products and to promote Cisco’s IOSF (Internetworking Operating System) as the leading network services architecture. ”
In order to achieve this strategic business intent, Cisco has to always putting the customer first and changes itself to satisfy customers change. Another important aspect that Cisco has to pay attention is the feature of Internet technology. Development of Internet technology is rapidly growth since it was founded, and there is no fixed standard for information exchange. For example, we could find a case of Boeing decided to choose a networking technology based on switches but not Cisco’s routers in Cisco’s history. In order to satisfy customer’s need, the only way that Cisco could do is also to produce switches, which means Cisco has to diversify its business. However, Cisco lacked of human capital and knowledge at that time.
As we found from the case, the most important strategy that made Cisco success is product diversification.
What are the performances of Cisco’s product diversification strategy? Till to year 000, Cisco has achieved unprecedented successes and has acquired and successfully integrated 70 companies into its fold. Cisco Systems passed a capitalization mark of $100 billion in 18 only 14 years after it was founded. On 10th December 1, Cisco became only the third company in history to go past the $00 billion mark in market capitalization. Since going public in 10, Cisco’s annual revenue has increased from $6 million to $18. billion in fiscal 000 � nearly 75 fold in 10 years. The financial highlights during 1 to 000 are show as Table 1
Mind that the sample papers like Cisco presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
Thursday, 12 July 2012
Accounting in the new Market
We are ready to represent the best custom paper writing assistance that can cope with any task like Accounting in the new Market even at the eleventh hour. The matter is that we posses the greatest base of expert writers. Our staff of freelance writers includes approximately 300 experienced writers are at your disposal all year round. They are striving to provide the best ever services to the most desperate students that have already lost the hope for academic success. We offer the range of the most widely required, however, not recommended for college use papers. It is advisable to use our examples like Accounting in the new Market in learning at public-education level. Get prepared and be smart with our best essay samples cheap and fast! Get in touch and we will write excellent custom coursework or essay especially for you.
For my sake, let’s begin with some basic questions
What are stock options? A stock option is a warrant (certificates entitling the holder to acquire shares of stock at a certain price within a stated period) which gives selected employees the option to purchase common stock at a given price over an extended period of time. 1
Why do companies give employees stock options? Stock option plans are used to pay and motivate employees. They are very popular because they meet the objectives of an effective compensation program. 1
What is an effective compensation program? It is one that (1) MOTIVATES EMPLOYEES TO HIGH LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE, () HELPS RETAIN EXECUTIVES AND ALLOW FOR RECRUITMENT OF NEW TALENT, () BASES COMPENSATION ON EMPLOYEE AND COMPANY PERFORMANCE, (4) MAXIMIZES THE EMPLOYEE’S AFTER-TAX BENEFIT AND MINIMIZES THE EMPLOYEE’S AFTER-TAX COST, AND (5) USES PERFORMANCE CRITERIA OVER WHICH THE EMPLOYEE HAS CONTROL. 1
How do stock options specifically meet the objectives of an effective compensation program? Since compensation is directly related to performance of the company’s stock in the long run, employees are motivated to work hard and make the company as successful as possible.
Aren’t options already expensed in company financial statements? Under the intrinsic value method used by most companies, options are computed for inclusion as compensation expense. The problem is most options are reported at zero (discussed under calculating the expense section), implying they have no value and, therefore, no effect on net income. The debate arises from the FASB’s push to use the fair value method, which will assign a definite cost to the use of options as compensation expense. This will, in effect, adjust net income based on the expense. When we read about the push to expense options, we are really reading about the push to switch to the fair value method. From this point on, we will assume ‘expensing’ in the context of this paper actually refers to using the fair value method to expense options.
Why all the fuss over “expensing”? The bottom line is The bottom line! Expensing causes lower reported earnings, which in turn, causes lower earnings per share and, ultimately, lower stock price. The employees holding options want the stock price to be at maximum value when they exercise (cash in) those options.
The ‘pros’ of ‘expensing’ stock options
I. Accurate financial information
Stock options are designed to align employee and shareholder interests while providing everyday workers with a stake in the system. Unfortunately, stock options have recently been used to disguise costs, provide excessive rewards to people already excessively rewarded, and give CEO’s a reason to play games with earnings. In a post-Enron, World-Com, and dot-com investment environment, there is a demand for accurate and reliable financial information. Investors are looking for useful information that can help them make good financial decisions. By expensing stock options, we are providing an accurate financial picture of employee compensation expense. Although the option grants are currently disclosed in the footnotes to financial statements, they dont affect reported earnings when they are issued or when they vest. As a result, the current accounting treatment of options leads to higher reported earnings, with the negative impact on earnings arriving years later when the options are exercised.
To illustrate this point, Merrill Lynch recently calculated that profit at companies in the chip industry would have declined 6 percent on average in 001 if they had expensed options. Intel, for example, would have had net income of $54 million instead of $1. billion. 4
Expensing stock options would move earnings closer to a true earnings figure. Stock options are compensation for employee services, and compensation should be reported as an expense. Alan Greenspan recently commented, “I fear the failure to expense stock option grants has introduced a significant distortion in reported earning-and one that has grown with the increasing prevalence of this form of compensation.” 5
II. Informed investors
Investors have recently been burned due to financial misconduct by several companies. This makes investors leery of information provided by companies about their financial standing. It is important to boost investor confidence (for the sake of our economy) by providing a full and accurate picture of a company’s financial position. Since options do not currently show up on income statements (reported as zero then included only in the footnotes), it may appear companies are hiding pay. This is not the way to regain the average investor’s trust. By expensing, we may move reported earnings closer to true earnings and make general investors more aware of their effects on income. By excluding, investors are less informed than they should be about the true input cost of creating corporate revenues. Alan Greenspan said in his May third speech “Capital employed on the basis of misinformation is likely to be capital misused.” 5
He also made these comments to further support this point “In recent years, substantial capital arguably was wasted on a number of enterprises whose prospects appeared more promising than they turned out to be. This waste is an inevitable byproduct of the risk-taking that generates the growth in our economy. However, the amount of waste becomes unnecessarily large when the earnings reports that help investors allocate investment are inaccurate.” 5
The ‘cons’ of ‘expensing’ stock options
I. Damaging to companies
Some companies contend that if they are forced to expense stock options, (1) raising capital will become more difficult and () the use of options as employee compensation will decline sharply. The logic is this Expensing causes lower reported earnings, and the lower earnings can cause a lower stock price. Due to the lowered stock price, (1) investors will be dissuaded to pump cash into the given company, () employees will not find stock options as attractive, and companies will curb use of options for employees.
The high technology sector is the most vocal in its opposition to expensing options. Stock options make up the majority of compensation for employees because they do not have the cash needed to attract and pay quality people (they are relatively new, start-up companies). Options are used as a promise for big money in the long run. Small high-tech companies believe that they will be placed at a competitive disadvantage with larger companies that can withstand higher compensation charges in the short run. 1 The impact on profits for larger companies is equally significant. A study of Microsoft, the worlds largest corporation based on market capitalization, found that its 18 profit of $4.5 billion would actually have been a loss of $18 billion had its stock options been treated as wage expense. 6
In response to this opposition, which was based primarily on economic consequences arguments, the FASB decided to encourage, rather than require, recognition of compensation cost based on the fair value method and require expanded disclosures. 1
Not all companies agree that expensing will cause significant damage. Many are beginning to make the move towards expensing. 7 The tech community is one voice being drowned out by an entire chorus of voices supporting expensing, an economist recently said, adding that General Electric and about 10 other companies have pledged to begin reporting stock options as an expense. 4 Most of these companies, though, will see very little impact on their earnings per share because they don’t have the large amount of options outstanding that high-tech companies do.
II. Valuation of Options
Opponents of expensing complain the current methods used to determine the value of employee stock options are flawed and subjective. Opponents contend many press reports on the options controversy convey an impression that valuation is a simple matter of plugging numbers into a well-accepted model. It is not that straightforward. Option valuation models require the input of highly subjective assumptions including the expected price volatility of the stock. Because the options granted to employees are not tradable and have long contractual lives and changes in the subjective input assumptions can materially affect the fair value estimate, the models do not necessarily provide a reliable measure of fair value of the option. 8
For example, the Black-Scholes option pricing model most commonly used to value options was not intended to handle employee stock options. It was designed to value readily tradable stock options with relatively short lives and no vesting restrictions. Employee stock options cannot be traded and are lost if an employee leaves before they are exercised. Opponents argue both of these restrictions should result in a price discount which should be factored into the pricing model, but because theres no market standard, FAS 1 doesnt allow companies to estimate what the discount should be. (The Financial Accounting Standards Board does define a calculation for expected pre-vesting forfeitures.)
Alan Greenspan commented on this subject in a recent speech addressing the options controversy “Some have argued against option expensing on the grounds that the Black-Scholes formula, the prevailing means of estimating option expense, is approximate. It is. But, ..., so is a good deal of all other earnings estimation.” 5
The argument concerning the accuracy of the current pricing models is valid, but it still doesn’t prove that options shouldn’t be expensed.
III. Financially accurate without expensing
Some opponents contend that since expensing is required in the footnotes, investors can flip back and subtract the options expense from the earnings statement. The availability of this information makes it unnecessary to require expensing in the body of the statement. Opponents also believe that markets are generally efficient and that share prices reflect available information, so it really doesnt matter if a firm deducts the options expense from earnings as long as the options are disclosed-which they are.
One study that supports this belief is a study by the Federal Reserve that points out there is a self-correcting mechanism with stock options as they affect share prices. The Fed study found that the more options a company grants the less it pays out in dividends, which reduces share prices. Money that would otherwise be used for dividends is used to repurchase shares for exercised options, which prevents dilution. Other studies have found that granting options to senior executives improves their performance, thereby raising profits and shareholder value. Ultimately, in a rational market, stock prices should already reflect the impact of stock options, causing them to be priced correctly. 6
The assumptions in the previous paragraphs are (1) the market is rational and () investors are savvy enough to pick up on information contained in the footnotes. These are dangerous assumptions when you the average investor considering floating money into a stock.
Calculating the expense
To comply with the Statement of Financial Accounting Standards(SFAS) No. 1 “Accounting for Stock-Based Compensation”, companies offering stock based compensation plans must determine the fair value of the options. The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) then gives companies a choice concerning reporting of options. They may use either the fair value method and recognize expenses in the income statement, or the intrinsic value method and disclose in the notes the pro forma impact on net income and earnings per share (if presented) as if the fair value method had been used. 1 Both methods are explained below.
I. Intrinsic value
Intrinsic value is the difference between the market price of the stock and the option’s exercise price (the specified price at which the employee can purchase the stock) at the grant date (the date when the employee is awarded the option). Total compensation cost is determined at the grant date and allocated to the periods benefited by the employee’s services-the service period. The service period is usually the vesting period-the time between the grant date and the vesting date (the date when the employee controls the exercise of the stock option). 1
II. Fair Value Method
Using the fair value approach, total compensation expense is computed based on the fair value of the options that are expected to vest on the grant date. A company can deduct the “fair value” of an option as an expense at the time the option is granted, allocating the cost over the vesting period of the option. (The time of recognition is the same in both methods, only the valuation is different.) Fair value at the grant date is estimated by using an acceptable pricing model. An acceptable pricing model estimates option value based on the following factors which determine its underlying value (1) Volatility of the underlying stock, () the expected life of the options, () the risk-free rate during the option life, and (4) the expected dividends during the option life. The Black-Scholes method is the most commonly used model in valuing options. 1
Black-Scholes Method
The Black-Scholes option pricing model, for which its originators won a
Nobel Prize in 17, is indeed a powerful and useful tool. It values options
according to six factors. Four are known the exercise price, the market price,
the current market rate of interest, and the term of the option. One is more-or-less known dividends. For high tech companies, dividends can be safely set at zero. The last factor is the most difficult the expected volatility of the shares.
Since FASB does not require the Black-Scholes method, just a method that meets the criteria for pricing models, that leaves the door open for companies to use different pricing models. Enter Coca-Cola. One of the first companies to announce plans to expense options, Coke plans to determine fair value by soliciting bids from at least two investment banks and averaging the result. The plan was devised by board member Warren Buffett. There are a lot of decisions that need to be made when you apply Black-Scholes, and they are subjective, explains spokesperson Kari Bjorhus. We felt it would be more fair and objective to ask third parties.
Issues related to calculating expense
The FASB strongly urges companies to use the fair value method, but almost no one does. Instead, they use intrinsic value (the difference between the grant price and the market price). This is almost always zero because options are usually priced at the market value at the time of the grant (market price=$50; option price=$50; $50-$50=$0). The fair market value is then put into a
footnote.10 The opposition comes from the push to use the fair value method because use of this method could cause earnings to be reduced drastically in some situations.
Other Issues
A related concern is the dilution of equity when employee stock options are exercised. The greater number of shares outstanding after exercise means
proportionately lower earnings available to the original shareholders. If properly accounted for, observers believe that investors will become fully aware of this dilution and many share prices will appear far overvalued, leading them to fall sharply. 6 If reported earnings fail to deduct stock options, this may mislead investors and keep them in the dark about the size of the future earnings
dilution. In sum, this argument suggests that investors need better estimates
of earnings in order to value equities properly.
The line is drawn. Investors and legislators stand on one side and
companies on the other, though a few companies, such as Coca-Cola, have now
agreed to begin expensing options.
1 Intermediate Accounting Textbook, Tenth Edition; Kieso, Weygandt, and Warfield.
“Reforming stock options in the Post-Enron, Post-WorldCom Era,” Rosen, Corey; July 00. www.nceo.org/library/reforming stock options; November 5, 00.
“Deducting the Options Expense Much Ado About Nothing,” Strategic Finance, October 00; Deshmukh, Howe, and Luft. InfoTrac Web General Business File; November 4, 00.
4 “National Business Panel Supports Expensing Stock Options,” Knight-Ridder/Tribune Business News; September 18, 00. ETSU Library Online Article Search, InfoTrac Web Info Trac OneFile; November 4, 00.
5 “Stock Options and Related Matters,” Remarks by Chairman Alan Greenspan; May , 00. www.federalreserve.gov/BoardDocs/Speeches/00; November 1, 00.
6 “How stock options affect Corporate Profits,“ Bartlett, Bruce; September 8, 1. www.ncpa.org; November 5, 00.
7 “Expensing those Expensive Options,” What you need to know about stocks. www.stocks.about.com/library/weekly; November 5, 00.
8 “Expensing Stock Options Is a Faddish Fraud,” Alan Reynolds; July 18, 00. www.creators.com; November 1, 00.
“The Value Proposition,” CFO, The Magazine for Senior Financial Executives, October 00; Tim Reason. InfoTrac Web General Business File.
10 “The Stock Options Controversy And The New Economy,” James V. DeLong; June, 00. www.cei.org; November 1, 00.
Mind that the sample papers like Accounting in the new Market presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
For my sake, let’s begin with some basic questions
What are stock options? A stock option is a warrant (certificates entitling the holder to acquire shares of stock at a certain price within a stated period) which gives selected employees the option to purchase common stock at a given price over an extended period of time. 1
Why do companies give employees stock options? Stock option plans are used to pay and motivate employees. They are very popular because they meet the objectives of an effective compensation program. 1
What is an effective compensation program? It is one that (1) MOTIVATES EMPLOYEES TO HIGH LEVELS OF PERFORMANCE, () HELPS RETAIN EXECUTIVES AND ALLOW FOR RECRUITMENT OF NEW TALENT, () BASES COMPENSATION ON EMPLOYEE AND COMPANY PERFORMANCE, (4) MAXIMIZES THE EMPLOYEE’S AFTER-TAX BENEFIT AND MINIMIZES THE EMPLOYEE’S AFTER-TAX COST, AND (5) USES PERFORMANCE CRITERIA OVER WHICH THE EMPLOYEE HAS CONTROL. 1
How do stock options specifically meet the objectives of an effective compensation program? Since compensation is directly related to performance of the company’s stock in the long run, employees are motivated to work hard and make the company as successful as possible.
Aren’t options already expensed in company financial statements? Under the intrinsic value method used by most companies, options are computed for inclusion as compensation expense. The problem is most options are reported at zero (discussed under calculating the expense section), implying they have no value and, therefore, no effect on net income. The debate arises from the FASB’s push to use the fair value method, which will assign a definite cost to the use of options as compensation expense. This will, in effect, adjust net income based on the expense. When we read about the push to expense options, we are really reading about the push to switch to the fair value method. From this point on, we will assume ‘expensing’ in the context of this paper actually refers to using the fair value method to expense options.
Why all the fuss over “expensing”? The bottom line is The bottom line! Expensing causes lower reported earnings, which in turn, causes lower earnings per share and, ultimately, lower stock price. The employees holding options want the stock price to be at maximum value when they exercise (cash in) those options.
The ‘pros’ of ‘expensing’ stock options
I. Accurate financial information
Stock options are designed to align employee and shareholder interests while providing everyday workers with a stake in the system. Unfortunately, stock options have recently been used to disguise costs, provide excessive rewards to people already excessively rewarded, and give CEO’s a reason to play games with earnings. In a post-Enron, World-Com, and dot-com investment environment, there is a demand for accurate and reliable financial information. Investors are looking for useful information that can help them make good financial decisions. By expensing stock options, we are providing an accurate financial picture of employee compensation expense. Although the option grants are currently disclosed in the footnotes to financial statements, they dont affect reported earnings when they are issued or when they vest. As a result, the current accounting treatment of options leads to higher reported earnings, with the negative impact on earnings arriving years later when the options are exercised.
To illustrate this point, Merrill Lynch recently calculated that profit at companies in the chip industry would have declined 6 percent on average in 001 if they had expensed options. Intel, for example, would have had net income of $54 million instead of $1. billion. 4
Expensing stock options would move earnings closer to a true earnings figure. Stock options are compensation for employee services, and compensation should be reported as an expense. Alan Greenspan recently commented, “I fear the failure to expense stock option grants has introduced a significant distortion in reported earning-and one that has grown with the increasing prevalence of this form of compensation.” 5
II. Informed investors
Investors have recently been burned due to financial misconduct by several companies. This makes investors leery of information provided by companies about their financial standing. It is important to boost investor confidence (for the sake of our economy) by providing a full and accurate picture of a company’s financial position. Since options do not currently show up on income statements (reported as zero then included only in the footnotes), it may appear companies are hiding pay. This is not the way to regain the average investor’s trust. By expensing, we may move reported earnings closer to true earnings and make general investors more aware of their effects on income. By excluding, investors are less informed than they should be about the true input cost of creating corporate revenues. Alan Greenspan said in his May third speech “Capital employed on the basis of misinformation is likely to be capital misused.” 5
He also made these comments to further support this point “In recent years, substantial capital arguably was wasted on a number of enterprises whose prospects appeared more promising than they turned out to be. This waste is an inevitable byproduct of the risk-taking that generates the growth in our economy. However, the amount of waste becomes unnecessarily large when the earnings reports that help investors allocate investment are inaccurate.” 5
The ‘cons’ of ‘expensing’ stock options
I. Damaging to companies
Some companies contend that if they are forced to expense stock options, (1) raising capital will become more difficult and () the use of options as employee compensation will decline sharply. The logic is this Expensing causes lower reported earnings, and the lower earnings can cause a lower stock price. Due to the lowered stock price, (1) investors will be dissuaded to pump cash into the given company, () employees will not find stock options as attractive, and companies will curb use of options for employees.
The high technology sector is the most vocal in its opposition to expensing options. Stock options make up the majority of compensation for employees because they do not have the cash needed to attract and pay quality people (they are relatively new, start-up companies). Options are used as a promise for big money in the long run. Small high-tech companies believe that they will be placed at a competitive disadvantage with larger companies that can withstand higher compensation charges in the short run. 1 The impact on profits for larger companies is equally significant. A study of Microsoft, the worlds largest corporation based on market capitalization, found that its 18 profit of $4.5 billion would actually have been a loss of $18 billion had its stock options been treated as wage expense. 6
In response to this opposition, which was based primarily on economic consequences arguments, the FASB decided to encourage, rather than require, recognition of compensation cost based on the fair value method and require expanded disclosures. 1
Not all companies agree that expensing will cause significant damage. Many are beginning to make the move towards expensing. 7 The tech community is one voice being drowned out by an entire chorus of voices supporting expensing, an economist recently said, adding that General Electric and about 10 other companies have pledged to begin reporting stock options as an expense. 4 Most of these companies, though, will see very little impact on their earnings per share because they don’t have the large amount of options outstanding that high-tech companies do.
II. Valuation of Options
Opponents of expensing complain the current methods used to determine the value of employee stock options are flawed and subjective. Opponents contend many press reports on the options controversy convey an impression that valuation is a simple matter of plugging numbers into a well-accepted model. It is not that straightforward. Option valuation models require the input of highly subjective assumptions including the expected price volatility of the stock. Because the options granted to employees are not tradable and have long contractual lives and changes in the subjective input assumptions can materially affect the fair value estimate, the models do not necessarily provide a reliable measure of fair value of the option. 8
For example, the Black-Scholes option pricing model most commonly used to value options was not intended to handle employee stock options. It was designed to value readily tradable stock options with relatively short lives and no vesting restrictions. Employee stock options cannot be traded and are lost if an employee leaves before they are exercised. Opponents argue both of these restrictions should result in a price discount which should be factored into the pricing model, but because theres no market standard, FAS 1 doesnt allow companies to estimate what the discount should be. (The Financial Accounting Standards Board does define a calculation for expected pre-vesting forfeitures.)
Alan Greenspan commented on this subject in a recent speech addressing the options controversy “Some have argued against option expensing on the grounds that the Black-Scholes formula, the prevailing means of estimating option expense, is approximate. It is. But, ..., so is a good deal of all other earnings estimation.” 5
The argument concerning the accuracy of the current pricing models is valid, but it still doesn’t prove that options shouldn’t be expensed.
III. Financially accurate without expensing
Some opponents contend that since expensing is required in the footnotes, investors can flip back and subtract the options expense from the earnings statement. The availability of this information makes it unnecessary to require expensing in the body of the statement. Opponents also believe that markets are generally efficient and that share prices reflect available information, so it really doesnt matter if a firm deducts the options expense from earnings as long as the options are disclosed-which they are.
One study that supports this belief is a study by the Federal Reserve that points out there is a self-correcting mechanism with stock options as they affect share prices. The Fed study found that the more options a company grants the less it pays out in dividends, which reduces share prices. Money that would otherwise be used for dividends is used to repurchase shares for exercised options, which prevents dilution. Other studies have found that granting options to senior executives improves their performance, thereby raising profits and shareholder value. Ultimately, in a rational market, stock prices should already reflect the impact of stock options, causing them to be priced correctly. 6
The assumptions in the previous paragraphs are (1) the market is rational and () investors are savvy enough to pick up on information contained in the footnotes. These are dangerous assumptions when you the average investor considering floating money into a stock.
Calculating the expense
To comply with the Statement of Financial Accounting Standards(SFAS) No. 1 “Accounting for Stock-Based Compensation”, companies offering stock based compensation plans must determine the fair value of the options. The Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB) then gives companies a choice concerning reporting of options. They may use either the fair value method and recognize expenses in the income statement, or the intrinsic value method and disclose in the notes the pro forma impact on net income and earnings per share (if presented) as if the fair value method had been used. 1 Both methods are explained below.
I. Intrinsic value
Intrinsic value is the difference between the market price of the stock and the option’s exercise price (the specified price at which the employee can purchase the stock) at the grant date (the date when the employee is awarded the option). Total compensation cost is determined at the grant date and allocated to the periods benefited by the employee’s services-the service period. The service period is usually the vesting period-the time between the grant date and the vesting date (the date when the employee controls the exercise of the stock option). 1
II. Fair Value Method
Using the fair value approach, total compensation expense is computed based on the fair value of the options that are expected to vest on the grant date. A company can deduct the “fair value” of an option as an expense at the time the option is granted, allocating the cost over the vesting period of the option. (The time of recognition is the same in both methods, only the valuation is different.) Fair value at the grant date is estimated by using an acceptable pricing model. An acceptable pricing model estimates option value based on the following factors which determine its underlying value (1) Volatility of the underlying stock, () the expected life of the options, () the risk-free rate during the option life, and (4) the expected dividends during the option life. The Black-Scholes method is the most commonly used model in valuing options. 1
Black-Scholes Method
The Black-Scholes option pricing model, for which its originators won a
Nobel Prize in 17, is indeed a powerful and useful tool. It values options
according to six factors. Four are known the exercise price, the market price,
the current market rate of interest, and the term of the option. One is more-or-less known dividends. For high tech companies, dividends can be safely set at zero. The last factor is the most difficult the expected volatility of the shares.
Since FASB does not require the Black-Scholes method, just a method that meets the criteria for pricing models, that leaves the door open for companies to use different pricing models. Enter Coca-Cola. One of the first companies to announce plans to expense options, Coke plans to determine fair value by soliciting bids from at least two investment banks and averaging the result. The plan was devised by board member Warren Buffett. There are a lot of decisions that need to be made when you apply Black-Scholes, and they are subjective, explains spokesperson Kari Bjorhus. We felt it would be more fair and objective to ask third parties.
Issues related to calculating expense
The FASB strongly urges companies to use the fair value method, but almost no one does. Instead, they use intrinsic value (the difference between the grant price and the market price). This is almost always zero because options are usually priced at the market value at the time of the grant (market price=$50; option price=$50; $50-$50=$0). The fair market value is then put into a
footnote.10 The opposition comes from the push to use the fair value method because use of this method could cause earnings to be reduced drastically in some situations.
Other Issues
A related concern is the dilution of equity when employee stock options are exercised. The greater number of shares outstanding after exercise means
proportionately lower earnings available to the original shareholders. If properly accounted for, observers believe that investors will become fully aware of this dilution and many share prices will appear far overvalued, leading them to fall sharply. 6 If reported earnings fail to deduct stock options, this may mislead investors and keep them in the dark about the size of the future earnings
dilution. In sum, this argument suggests that investors need better estimates
of earnings in order to value equities properly.
The line is drawn. Investors and legislators stand on one side and
companies on the other, though a few companies, such as Coca-Cola, have now
agreed to begin expensing options.
1 Intermediate Accounting Textbook, Tenth Edition; Kieso, Weygandt, and Warfield.
“Reforming stock options in the Post-Enron, Post-WorldCom Era,” Rosen, Corey; July 00. www.nceo.org/library/reforming stock options; November 5, 00.
“Deducting the Options Expense Much Ado About Nothing,” Strategic Finance, October 00; Deshmukh, Howe, and Luft. InfoTrac Web General Business File; November 4, 00.
4 “National Business Panel Supports Expensing Stock Options,” Knight-Ridder/Tribune Business News; September 18, 00. ETSU Library Online Article Search, InfoTrac Web Info Trac OneFile; November 4, 00.
5 “Stock Options and Related Matters,” Remarks by Chairman Alan Greenspan; May , 00. www.federalreserve.gov/BoardDocs/Speeches/00; November 1, 00.
6 “How stock options affect Corporate Profits,“ Bartlett, Bruce; September 8, 1. www.ncpa.org; November 5, 00.
7 “Expensing those Expensive Options,” What you need to know about stocks. www.stocks.about.com/library/weekly; November 5, 00.
8 “Expensing Stock Options Is a Faddish Fraud,” Alan Reynolds; July 18, 00. www.creators.com; November 1, 00.
“The Value Proposition,” CFO, The Magazine for Senior Financial Executives, October 00; Tim Reason. InfoTrac Web General Business File.
10 “The Stock Options Controversy And The New Economy,” James V. DeLong; June, 00. www.cei.org; November 1, 00.
Mind that the sample papers like Accounting in the new Market presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
to be or not to be
We are ready to represent the best custom paper writing assistance that can cope with any task like to be or not to be even at the eleventh hour. The matter is that we posses the greatest base of expert writers. Our staff of freelance writers includes approximately 300 experienced writers are at your disposal all year round. They are striving to provide the best ever services to the most desperate students that have already lost the hope for academic success. We offer the range of the most widely required, however, not recommended for college use papers. It is advisable to use our examples like to be or not to be in learning at public-education level. Get prepared and be smart with our best essay samples cheap and fast! Get in touch and we will write excellent custom coursework or essay especially for you.
I am a bobo and you ?
Several times a year you can see H&M in different advertising campaigns through out the world. The advertising is used to inform customers about news from H&M regarding women, men, teenagers, kids and cosmetic.
H&Ms advertising is designed to be clear and simple. It shows the latest fashion and the price of the goods. H&M’s marketing is very influential and H&M is trying to convey a positive and wholesome image with healthy values. H&M’s policy is that the people appearing in the advertising must be healthy and wholesome and therefore is H&M deliberately distances itself from alcohol and drug abuse. To be sure that the models used in the advertising is good role models their agencies have to guarantee that the models are not suffering from drug or alcohol abuse, eating disorders or similar illnesses.
.1.4 Production
H&M do not own any factories, but instead they are working with around 00 suppliers. 50 % of the production takes place in Europe, 4% in Asia and the reminder in other countries around the world.
In order to monitor the production H&M has 0 production offices in Europe and Asia. Their tasks are partly to monitor the purchasing market and partly to monitor production and ensure that suppliers are abiding by H&M’s instructions. H&M also carry out quality control procedures and factory inspections to check working conditions in the factories.
By introducing brands that have become giants on the global stage Nokia,
IKEA and H&M, both countries have proven how successful a brand can become if it
starts with a foundation of core values that resonate with multiple cultures.
Strong global leadership and management have shown that brands like Nokia, Ikea and H&M can come from small, unfamiliar markets and become global powerhouses. In addition to managing their brands with a tremendous respect for other cultures, all sh
Mind that the sample papers like to be or not to be presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
I am a bobo and you ?
Several times a year you can see H&M in different advertising campaigns through out the world. The advertising is used to inform customers about news from H&M regarding women, men, teenagers, kids and cosmetic.
H&Ms advertising is designed to be clear and simple. It shows the latest fashion and the price of the goods. H&M’s marketing is very influential and H&M is trying to convey a positive and wholesome image with healthy values. H&M’s policy is that the people appearing in the advertising must be healthy and wholesome and therefore is H&M deliberately distances itself from alcohol and drug abuse. To be sure that the models used in the advertising is good role models their agencies have to guarantee that the models are not suffering from drug or alcohol abuse, eating disorders or similar illnesses.
.1.4 Production
H&M do not own any factories, but instead they are working with around 00 suppliers. 50 % of the production takes place in Europe, 4% in Asia and the reminder in other countries around the world.
In order to monitor the production H&M has 0 production offices in Europe and Asia. Their tasks are partly to monitor the purchasing market and partly to monitor production and ensure that suppliers are abiding by H&M’s instructions. H&M also carry out quality control procedures and factory inspections to check working conditions in the factories.
By introducing brands that have become giants on the global stage Nokia,
IKEA and H&M, both countries have proven how successful a brand can become if it
starts with a foundation of core values that resonate with multiple cultures.
Strong global leadership and management have shown that brands like Nokia, Ikea and H&M can come from small, unfamiliar markets and become global powerhouses. In addition to managing their brands with a tremendous respect for other cultures, all sh
Mind that the sample papers like to be or not to be presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
Rules in wearing Kimono.
We are ready to represent the best custom paper writing assistance that can cope with any task like Rules in wearing Kimono. even at the eleventh hour. The matter is that we posses the greatest base of expert writers. Our staff of freelance writers includes approximately 300 experienced writers are at your disposal all year round. They are striving to provide the best ever services to the most desperate students that have already lost the hope for academic success. We offer the range of the most widely required, however, not recommended for college use papers. It is advisable to use our examples like Rules in wearing Kimono. in learning at public-education level. Get prepared and be smart with our best essay samples cheap and fast! Get in touch and we will write excellent custom coursework or essay especially for you.
Rules For Women In Wearing Kimonos
In Japan today, most people wear Western clothes in their everyday life, but the traditional Japanese clothing �kimono- is still popular. Kimono is a complex costume. This complication is shown in the rules in the standard dressing formula. There are a lot of rules about wearing a kimono, from choosing a suitable kimono and wearing a kimono to acting and walking while wearing it.
The most complicated thing in wearing a kimono is how to choose a suitable one because there are a lot of rules about what types and color of clothing people wear on various occasions as well as who can wear it and when. The kimono reflects a time past when social codes concerning status were important. Women must choose the right color and design according to her age and marital status. There is a clear distinction in color, design and the sleeve-length between married women and unmarried women’s kimono. For example, only unmarried [usually younger] women wear kimono with long, flowing sleeves [Furisode kimono]. In other words, those who once got married are not supposed to wear long-sleeve kimono in front of public. Younger women can wear brighter colors and the wide waist sash, or “obi,” which can be tied in a more showy way. The thin tie that holds the wide sash in place is tied in different ways, depending on whether the occasion is happy or sad. Married women should wear a shorter sleeved kimono and more conservative colors and designs [Tomesode kimono] (Occasions For Wearing Kimonos). Also, the distinction between formal and informal situation is taken seriously. In All-Japan The Catalogue Of Everything Japan, Liza Crihfield explained
At its most informal, a kimono is a cotton yukata � literally a bathrobe. Otherwise, when the occasion calls for a kimono, it will most likely be the most formal version a special silk kimono marked by heraldic crests and worn at weddings, funerals, and other times of high ceremony. (8)
For unmarried women, “the most formal kimono for festival occasions is in various colors. It has an overall design that runs diagonally from the shoulder down to the hem,” long sleeve. For married women, the most formal kimono is the “tomosode of black silk crepe with the family crest in 5 spots, has design only on the hem” (Kamachi 1-14). A key distinguishing feature of tomesode (both black and other colors) is that only the fabric on the bottom half of the kimono is decorated with a pattern. Women also often wear a “black susomoyo kimono with crest over a magajuban, with a white habutae collar while pre-married girls and brides wear the furisode.” “Haori is never worn by women on formal occasions. For informal wear, colored susomoyo is worn.” (Mombusho 05) As they get older, their kimono designs become less distinct and the colors deeper and richer while the obi is worn lower and made narrower. Obi colors, like the kimono, depend on the age of the wearer.
In addition, there are certain rules for colors of kimonos one should use that are defined by the season. Japanese people are keenly aware of four seasons, and the clothes they wear are always in keeping with the season. For example, in springtime, young woman would wear kimono which color is combination of light red and pink, suggesting color of sakura, the cherry blossom. In summer, blue, the color of water would be better. Autumn calls for colors that imitate the hues of the turning leaves, and winter is the season for strong colors like black and red. Therefore, hito hitoe, a single layered, unlined kimono, is worn during summer from June1 through September 0, and the winter kimono, awase, is from October 1 through May 1 (Dalby Kimono 08-1) Explaining Japanese’s habit of changing their kimonos to fit the season, Norio Yamanaka writes
From this [“wrapping” phenomenon 1 layers of kimono] arose a unique and deep appreciation of colors and their combinations, for great care was taken in matching and harmonizing the colors of the kimono […] Choosing colors to mirror the seasons and their moods is a reflection of how Japanese became finely attuned to even the slightest change in seasons and learned to appreciate the beauty of things in nature (8).
Japanese is not only sensitive about proper clothing reflecting the changes of season but also sensitive about accessories that go with the kimono. Western accessories are not appropriate to wear with the kimono such as piercing, necklaces and bracelets. Ring and wristwatch are worn occasionally. Unless you have had a kimono put on you, or lived in Japan for any length of time, you would probably be quite surprised just how complicated it can be. It isnt something you can just slip into. In fact, there may be 18 different articles or accessories, which are needed as a minimum. According to Norio Yamanaka, wearing a kimono requires tabi (split-toed socks), hadajuban (undershirt), susoyoke (half- slip), towels or body pads, nagajuban (full-length under-kimono), han eri (half-colar), eri shin (half-colar lining), chikara nuno (collar adjustment), date-jime or date-maki (waistband or under-sash), koshi himo (sash), kimono belt, obi, kari himo (temporary cord), obi ita (obi stay), obi makura (obi pad), obi-age (bustle sash), obi-jime (obi cord), zori (sandals) (7). Thus, putting on the kimono is not easy and must be in order. The kimono must be “fitted on the body with all the seams straight, and the length is adjusted by tucking in the excess material under the sash. One absolutely important rule is to pull tight the right side of the front first and then the left side over it” (Clothing). It requires 0 steps in putting on a woman’s kimono and practice is needed to do it properly.
Even though a special technique is required to wear a kimono, the style and refined beauty of the kimono derives more from the atmosphere created by the manner in which the kimono is worn than from the beauty of the cloth. A kimono is said to be beautiful only when the wearers spirit and character is “a thing of beauty.” “Wearing a kimono is not simply a matter of putting it on, for it is the wearer who makes the kimono elegant or tasteless.” (Yamanaka 16)
Posture is of great importance. It should be natural, with the back straight, the chin pulled in slightly and the shoulders relaxed. Sudden and large movements should be avoided, since they will expose the arms and, especially, the legs, and allowing even the briefest glimpse of the legs is considered quite bad taste (Yamanaka 16).
In walking, taking steps needs to be small and slower than when wearing western style clothes. This is quite restrictive always keep your back straight and keep your balance even when bowing, sitting, eating, drinking or just getting into a car. Therefore, Japanese women have a different way to get into a car. Norio describes “Place hand on the back of the front car seat and sit on the edge of the seat. Ease one foot and then the other into the car. Bring your feet in front of you, knees and feet together.” (17) Some people say the kimono looks nice but when they put it on themselves, it is too tight and they can hardly drink or eat anything. To wear a kimono elegantly and perfectly, no chocking as well as no uncomfortableness are the keys. The standard manners are also required while wearing kimono. For example, when eating and drinking, a woman avoids reaching things with both hands and always uses her free hand to keep the other sleeve from dragging. When drinking, she needs to use her right hand to place the cup or glass on her left palm and to keep it steady when not actually drinking. (17)
In spite of its complicated rules, wearing a kimono, indeed, is a traditional art. It requires training and experience to put on a kimono comfortably and attractively, it also requires training in walking and moving gracefully when wearing. The kimono must be fitted on the body with all the seams straight, and the length is adjusted by tucking in the excess material under the sash. The extract form of a woman’s kimono outfit is determined by her age, the season and the level of formality of the occasion. The choice of colors, designs and material cannot be made randomly but it is governed by a precise code of social appropriateness. These complicated rules coupled with the great expense involved contribute to the feeling of many Japanese women that kimono are completely impractical for modern life.
Mind that the sample papers like Rules in wearing Kimono. presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
Rules For Women In Wearing Kimonos
In Japan today, most people wear Western clothes in their everyday life, but the traditional Japanese clothing �kimono- is still popular. Kimono is a complex costume. This complication is shown in the rules in the standard dressing formula. There are a lot of rules about wearing a kimono, from choosing a suitable kimono and wearing a kimono to acting and walking while wearing it.
The most complicated thing in wearing a kimono is how to choose a suitable one because there are a lot of rules about what types and color of clothing people wear on various occasions as well as who can wear it and when. The kimono reflects a time past when social codes concerning status were important. Women must choose the right color and design according to her age and marital status. There is a clear distinction in color, design and the sleeve-length between married women and unmarried women’s kimono. For example, only unmarried [usually younger] women wear kimono with long, flowing sleeves [Furisode kimono]. In other words, those who once got married are not supposed to wear long-sleeve kimono in front of public. Younger women can wear brighter colors and the wide waist sash, or “obi,” which can be tied in a more showy way. The thin tie that holds the wide sash in place is tied in different ways, depending on whether the occasion is happy or sad. Married women should wear a shorter sleeved kimono and more conservative colors and designs [Tomesode kimono] (Occasions For Wearing Kimonos). Also, the distinction between formal and informal situation is taken seriously. In All-Japan The Catalogue Of Everything Japan, Liza Crihfield explained
At its most informal, a kimono is a cotton yukata � literally a bathrobe. Otherwise, when the occasion calls for a kimono, it will most likely be the most formal version a special silk kimono marked by heraldic crests and worn at weddings, funerals, and other times of high ceremony. (8)
For unmarried women, “the most formal kimono for festival occasions is in various colors. It has an overall design that runs diagonally from the shoulder down to the hem,” long sleeve. For married women, the most formal kimono is the “tomosode of black silk crepe with the family crest in 5 spots, has design only on the hem” (Kamachi 1-14). A key distinguishing feature of tomesode (both black and other colors) is that only the fabric on the bottom half of the kimono is decorated with a pattern. Women also often wear a “black susomoyo kimono with crest over a magajuban, with a white habutae collar while pre-married girls and brides wear the furisode.” “Haori is never worn by women on formal occasions. For informal wear, colored susomoyo is worn.” (Mombusho 05) As they get older, their kimono designs become less distinct and the colors deeper and richer while the obi is worn lower and made narrower. Obi colors, like the kimono, depend on the age of the wearer.
In addition, there are certain rules for colors of kimonos one should use that are defined by the season. Japanese people are keenly aware of four seasons, and the clothes they wear are always in keeping with the season. For example, in springtime, young woman would wear kimono which color is combination of light red and pink, suggesting color of sakura, the cherry blossom. In summer, blue, the color of water would be better. Autumn calls for colors that imitate the hues of the turning leaves, and winter is the season for strong colors like black and red. Therefore, hito hitoe, a single layered, unlined kimono, is worn during summer from June1 through September 0, and the winter kimono, awase, is from October 1 through May 1 (Dalby Kimono 08-1) Explaining Japanese’s habit of changing their kimonos to fit the season, Norio Yamanaka writes
From this [“wrapping” phenomenon 1 layers of kimono] arose a unique and deep appreciation of colors and their combinations, for great care was taken in matching and harmonizing the colors of the kimono […] Choosing colors to mirror the seasons and their moods is a reflection of how Japanese became finely attuned to even the slightest change in seasons and learned to appreciate the beauty of things in nature (8).
Japanese is not only sensitive about proper clothing reflecting the changes of season but also sensitive about accessories that go with the kimono. Western accessories are not appropriate to wear with the kimono such as piercing, necklaces and bracelets. Ring and wristwatch are worn occasionally. Unless you have had a kimono put on you, or lived in Japan for any length of time, you would probably be quite surprised just how complicated it can be. It isnt something you can just slip into. In fact, there may be 18 different articles or accessories, which are needed as a minimum. According to Norio Yamanaka, wearing a kimono requires tabi (split-toed socks), hadajuban (undershirt), susoyoke (half- slip), towels or body pads, nagajuban (full-length under-kimono), han eri (half-colar), eri shin (half-colar lining), chikara nuno (collar adjustment), date-jime or date-maki (waistband or under-sash), koshi himo (sash), kimono belt, obi, kari himo (temporary cord), obi ita (obi stay), obi makura (obi pad), obi-age (bustle sash), obi-jime (obi cord), zori (sandals) (7). Thus, putting on the kimono is not easy and must be in order. The kimono must be “fitted on the body with all the seams straight, and the length is adjusted by tucking in the excess material under the sash. One absolutely important rule is to pull tight the right side of the front first and then the left side over it” (Clothing). It requires 0 steps in putting on a woman’s kimono and practice is needed to do it properly.
Even though a special technique is required to wear a kimono, the style and refined beauty of the kimono derives more from the atmosphere created by the manner in which the kimono is worn than from the beauty of the cloth. A kimono is said to be beautiful only when the wearers spirit and character is “a thing of beauty.” “Wearing a kimono is not simply a matter of putting it on, for it is the wearer who makes the kimono elegant or tasteless.” (Yamanaka 16)
Posture is of great importance. It should be natural, with the back straight, the chin pulled in slightly and the shoulders relaxed. Sudden and large movements should be avoided, since they will expose the arms and, especially, the legs, and allowing even the briefest glimpse of the legs is considered quite bad taste (Yamanaka 16).
In walking, taking steps needs to be small and slower than when wearing western style clothes. This is quite restrictive always keep your back straight and keep your balance even when bowing, sitting, eating, drinking or just getting into a car. Therefore, Japanese women have a different way to get into a car. Norio describes “Place hand on the back of the front car seat and sit on the edge of the seat. Ease one foot and then the other into the car. Bring your feet in front of you, knees and feet together.” (17) Some people say the kimono looks nice but when they put it on themselves, it is too tight and they can hardly drink or eat anything. To wear a kimono elegantly and perfectly, no chocking as well as no uncomfortableness are the keys. The standard manners are also required while wearing kimono. For example, when eating and drinking, a woman avoids reaching things with both hands and always uses her free hand to keep the other sleeve from dragging. When drinking, she needs to use her right hand to place the cup or glass on her left palm and to keep it steady when not actually drinking. (17)
In spite of its complicated rules, wearing a kimono, indeed, is a traditional art. It requires training and experience to put on a kimono comfortably and attractively, it also requires training in walking and moving gracefully when wearing. The kimono must be fitted on the body with all the seams straight, and the length is adjusted by tucking in the excess material under the sash. The extract form of a woman’s kimono outfit is determined by her age, the season and the level of formality of the occasion. The choice of colors, designs and material cannot be made randomly but it is governed by a precise code of social appropriateness. These complicated rules coupled with the great expense involved contribute to the feeling of many Japanese women that kimono are completely impractical for modern life.
Mind that the sample papers like Rules in wearing Kimono. presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
How To Wash Your Hands
We are ready to represent the best custom paper writing assistance that can cope with any task like How To Wash Your Hands even at the eleventh hour. The matter is that we posses the greatest base of expert writers. Our staff of freelance writers includes approximately 300 experienced writers are at your disposal all year round. They are striving to provide the best ever services to the most desperate students that have already lost the hope for academic success. We offer the range of the most widely required, however, not recommended for college use papers. It is advisable to use our examples like How To Wash Your Hands in learning at public-education level. Get prepared and be smart with our best essay samples cheap and fast! Get in touch and we will write excellent custom coursework or essay especially for you.
You know the question that comes out of every parents mouth 1,000 times a day. No, its not Why cant you leave your sister (or brother) alone? Its not Why is the dog wearing your baseball hat? or even What is your homework doing all bunched up at the bottom of your backpack?! Its Did you wash your hands?
Why are adults so hung up on hand washing? Why are they so in love with lather?
Washing your hands is the best way to stop germs from spreading. Think about all the things that you touched today - from your telephone to the toilet, your sweaty T-shirt to your slimy tissue. Even though you cant see them, many things that you touch every day are covered with germs. When you have germs on your hands, you can pass them to other people without even knowing it and make them sick. Or those same germs can make you sick by hitching a ride into your body each time you touch your food or put your hands in your mouth, or rub your nose or your eyes. Think about how many foods you eat with your hands every day. The most important thing that you can do to keep from getting sick is to wash your hands. By frequently washing your hands you wash away germs that you have picked up from other people, or from contaminated surfaces, or from animals and animal waste. You can also spread germs directly to others or onto surfaces that other people touch, and before you know it, everybody around you is getting sick.
The important thing to remember is that, in addition to colds, some pretty serious diseases -- like hepatitis A, meningitis, and infectious diarrhea -- can easily be prevented if people make a habit of washing their hands.
When should you wash your hands?
You should wash your hands often. Probably more often than you do now because you cant see germs with the naked eye or smell them, so you do not really know where they are hiding. It is especially important to wash your hands before, during, and after you prepare food. Before you eat, and after you use the bathroom are other times you should wash your hands. You should also wash your hands after handling animals (or animal waste), when your hands are dirty, and more frequently when someone in your home is sick.
What is the correct way to wash your hands?
• First wet your hands preferably with warm water. Apply liquid or clean bar soap. Place the bar soap on a rack and allow it to drain. Use whatever soap you like. Some soaps come in cool shapes and colors or smell nice, but whatever kind gets you scrubbing is the kind you should use. Antibacterial soaps are OK to use, but theyre not necessary for getting rid of germs.
• Next rub your hands vigorously together and scrub all surfaces. Work up some lather on both sides of your hands, your wrists, and between your fingers. Dont forget to wash around your nails - germs favorite finger hideaway.
• Continue for 10 - 15 seconds or about the length of a little tune. It is the soap combined with the scrubbing action that helps dislodge and remove germs.
• Rinse and dry well with a clean towel..
It is estimated that one out of three people do not wash their hands after using the restroom. So these tips are also important when you are out in public. When using a public restroom you can dispense paper towels before you wash your hands. When finished, dry your hands with the pre-dispensed towel. Then use it to turn off the water and open the door before discarding it into the waste basket.
After listening to my speech I hope you now have a better understanding of how to wash your hands and ways this process is beneficial. Washing your hands regularly can certainly save a lot on medical bills. Because it costs less than a penny, you could say that this pennys worth of prevention can save you a $50 visit to the doctor.
Mind that the sample papers like How To Wash Your Hands presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
You know the question that comes out of every parents mouth 1,000 times a day. No, its not Why cant you leave your sister (or brother) alone? Its not Why is the dog wearing your baseball hat? or even What is your homework doing all bunched up at the bottom of your backpack?! Its Did you wash your hands?
Why are adults so hung up on hand washing? Why are they so in love with lather?
Washing your hands is the best way to stop germs from spreading. Think about all the things that you touched today - from your telephone to the toilet, your sweaty T-shirt to your slimy tissue. Even though you cant see them, many things that you touch every day are covered with germs. When you have germs on your hands, you can pass them to other people without even knowing it and make them sick. Or those same germs can make you sick by hitching a ride into your body each time you touch your food or put your hands in your mouth, or rub your nose or your eyes. Think about how many foods you eat with your hands every day. The most important thing that you can do to keep from getting sick is to wash your hands. By frequently washing your hands you wash away germs that you have picked up from other people, or from contaminated surfaces, or from animals and animal waste. You can also spread germs directly to others or onto surfaces that other people touch, and before you know it, everybody around you is getting sick.
The important thing to remember is that, in addition to colds, some pretty serious diseases -- like hepatitis A, meningitis, and infectious diarrhea -- can easily be prevented if people make a habit of washing their hands.
When should you wash your hands?
You should wash your hands often. Probably more often than you do now because you cant see germs with the naked eye or smell them, so you do not really know where they are hiding. It is especially important to wash your hands before, during, and after you prepare food. Before you eat, and after you use the bathroom are other times you should wash your hands. You should also wash your hands after handling animals (or animal waste), when your hands are dirty, and more frequently when someone in your home is sick.
What is the correct way to wash your hands?
• First wet your hands preferably with warm water. Apply liquid or clean bar soap. Place the bar soap on a rack and allow it to drain. Use whatever soap you like. Some soaps come in cool shapes and colors or smell nice, but whatever kind gets you scrubbing is the kind you should use. Antibacterial soaps are OK to use, but theyre not necessary for getting rid of germs.
• Next rub your hands vigorously together and scrub all surfaces. Work up some lather on both sides of your hands, your wrists, and between your fingers. Dont forget to wash around your nails - germs favorite finger hideaway.
• Continue for 10 - 15 seconds or about the length of a little tune. It is the soap combined with the scrubbing action that helps dislodge and remove germs.
• Rinse and dry well with a clean towel..
It is estimated that one out of three people do not wash their hands after using the restroom. So these tips are also important when you are out in public. When using a public restroom you can dispense paper towels before you wash your hands. When finished, dry your hands with the pre-dispensed towel. Then use it to turn off the water and open the door before discarding it into the waste basket.
After listening to my speech I hope you now have a better understanding of how to wash your hands and ways this process is beneficial. Washing your hands regularly can certainly save a lot on medical bills. Because it costs less than a penny, you could say that this pennys worth of prevention can save you a $50 visit to the doctor.
Mind that the sample papers like How To Wash Your Hands presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
EventsLeading Up To The Establishment Of the State Of Isreal
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One cannot discuss the Arab-Israeli conflict without first examining the events leading up to the establishment of the State of Israel. These events will thus be discussed in this section.
Although Jews have, over the eighteen centuries since the Roman Exile, maintained a constant presence (albeit small) in the Land of Israel, the modern concept of Zionism � which led to the formation of the State of Israel � has its roots in nineteenth century Europe. There, Jews experienced the political and scientific renaissance known as the Emancipation, which gave Jews the chance to break their general isolation from the day-to-day affairs of the countries in which they resided. Many Jews adopted the ethno-nationalist political ideology that was developing in Europe at the time and set up moshavim � communities which were financed largely by Baron Edmund de Rothschild of Paris � and socialist communes (called kibbutzim) in Israel, their ancient homeland. The first wave of Jews who were so inclined arrived in Israel (then known as Palestine) in 188, in what is known as the First Aliyah (going up the way Jews describe their immigration to the Holy Land).
Other Jews assimilated into their host countries. One such Jew was Theodor Herzl, a Hungarian-born reporter. Although he was fully assimilated into European society, Herzl’s life and worldview changed dramatically in 185, when he covered the court martial of Captain Alfred Dreyfus. The court martial resulted from the French intelligence services’ discovery of a secret military document that had been transmitted from a French officer to the military attach� of the German Embassy in Paris. Although evidence seemed to indicate that the actual traitor was Major Ferdinand Walsin Ester hazy, a Hungarian who had connections to the Germans, the French military establishment refused to believe that Ester hazy was guilty. Instead, they blamed Dreyfus, primarily because he was a Jew, which made him, in the eyes of the French military, a likely traitor. On January 5, 185, following a secret court martial, Dreyfus was public ally demoted and exiled for life to Devil’s Island, near South America.
At the public demotion ceremony, Herzl heard many anti-Semitic epithets being uttered by members of the crowd, including Death to the Jews. Herzl came to the conclusion that, no matter how much the Jews assimilated into their host countries, they would always be persecuted. The only solution, Herzl believed, would be the exodus of Jews from these countries to a specifically Jewish country. Although he died in 104, decades before the formation of the State of Israel, the state owes its existence in large part to Herzl’s ideas.
Throughout the first half of the twentieth century, Jewish immigration to Israel continued. The climactic event of this period, however, took place not in Israel but rather in Nazi Germany, in which millions of Jews, forced to remain in Germany because they had nowhere else to go, perished in the Holocaust. The Holocaust was such a powerful demonstration of Herzl’s reasons for setting up a Jewish country being taken to their logical extreme that that Jewish country, the State of Israel, was declared just three years following the end of World War II, on May 14, 148.
World War II
The events of World War II had a major impact on the future State of Israel. From an Israeli perspective, the most significant event of World War II was the Holocaust.
Just prior to the Holocaust, many Jews tried to escape from Germany. Many attempted to get into the United States, but they were turned down. The same thing happened in other countries. As a result, they were forced to return and eventually perished in the Death Camps. Others tried to immigrate to Israel (Palestine), but the British (who had were in charge of a Mandate government in the region) purposely instituted policies that made it quite difficult for many Jews to immigrate to Israel.
In 1, the British government put forth a new White Paper in an attempt to appease the local Arab population. Among other things, the White Paper of 1 put significant restrictions on the numbers of Jews who would be allowed to immigrate to Israel; for all intents and purposes the White Paper closed the gates to Jewish immigration.
Jews living in Israel thus faced a serious dilemma on the one hand, they wanted to assist the British in their efforts to fight the Nazis in Europe; on the other hand, however, they wanted to fight the British efforts in Israel to prevent Jewish immigration. This love/hate attitude toward the British was best summed up by future Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion - at the time, the Chairman of the Jewish Agency Executive We will fight Hitler as if no White Paper existed and we will fight the White Paper as if Hitler did not exist. Thus, Jews would assist the British in Europe, but they would reserve a right to fight against the British in Israel.
One of the most famous Jews who fought in Europe was Hanna Senesh, an immigrant from Hungary who came to Israel in 1. Although she enrolled in the Nahalal Agricultural School and intended to become a farmer on a kibbutz, history had other plans for her. Just a few short years after her arrival in Israel, Senesh - along with the rest of the world - began to learn of the Nazi Holocaust back in Europe. She soon volunteered to serve in an elite unit of Jewish paratroopers. After undergoing grueling commando training, Senesh was chosen, along with 1 other volunteers, to parachute into Europe to fight the Nazis head-on.
In January 144, she parachuted into Yugoslavia and crossed into Hungary. Unfortunately, Hungarian Partisans, known for their anti-Semitism, caught her. The Partisans turned her over to the Nazis. For five months, she was held in a Gestapo jail in Budapest, where she was severely tortured. As hard as they tried, however, the Nazis could not break her. Finally, on November 7, 144, Senesh was executed by a firing squad; she refused to be blindfolded. Hanah Senesh was reburied in Jerusalem in 150.
Meanwhile, back in Israel, the majorities of the Irgun (the Jewish National Military Organization, or Irgun Tzvah Leumi - commonly abbreviated Etzel) decided to cease fighting against the British and, instead, assist them in Europe. However, Avraham Stern led a small faction of the Irgun against the British. Stern believed that the war in Europe was so important to the British that they would be more than willing to make concessions to Jews in Israel if this proved necessary. He even negotiated with the Germans and the Italians!
Soon, Stern found it necessary to break with the Irgun altogether. He formed the LEHI (Lochamei Cherut Yisrael - Freedom Fighters of Israel), also known as the Stern Gang. The British did everything possible to track LEHI members. Finally, in 14, the British arrested Stern himself and killed him shortly thereafter. This only served to make Stern a martyr to LEHI members, and their resolve to attack the British was strengthened with Sterns death.
Meanwhile, at about the same time as Sterns death, Irgun leader David Raziel was killed in Iraq while on a mission for the British. He was replaced with future Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin. By 144, it had become clear that the Allies would win the War. Consequently, on February 1, Begin announced that the Irgun was resuming its fight against the British.
As the world outside of Germany began to learn the gruesome details of the Holocaust, the Jews of Israel increased their pressure on the British to rescind the White Paper and allow Holocaust survivors to come to Israel. The British, however, refused to cooperate. As a result, the struggle against the British intensified - especially from the LEHI, whose members considered any British policeman or soldier a legitimate target.
With more and more British being killed in Israel, the people of the United Kingdom increased their demands that the British pull out of Israel altogether. The British finally gave up, returning the Mandate for Palestine to the United Nations in 147.
For many Jews, the events of World War II underscored the need for a safe haven for Jews, so that they would never again be without a place to flee from anti-Semitism in the Diaspora. Consequently, the State of Israel was founded in 148, just three years after World War II ended.
The Arab-Israel Conflict Prior to the State of Israel’s Establishment
After World War I, the League of Nations gave France and the United Kingdom control of the region that had been liberated from the Ottoman Empire France was given Lebanon and Syria, while the UK was given Iraq and Palestine (modern-day Israel � including Gaza and the West Bank � and Jordan). The stated reason for the French and British presence was to prepare the regions in question for independence.
In Palestine, the Jewish population was increasing rapidly. Under the leadership of future Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion, large tracts of land were purchased from Arabs, many of who resided abroad. Alarmed at their ever-shrinking majority, the Arabs in Palestine began to take defensive measures. Palestinian Arab nationalist organizations were set up, including the Higher Arab Council, which attempted to influence British policy and to counter the activities of the Zionists. Haj Amin al-Husseini, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, tried to garner foreign support for the cessation of Zionist activity and for the conclusion of the British mandate. The British, in an effort to win Arab support, issued several White Papers, which restricted Jewish immigration. Palestinian Jews, however, fought the White Papers by helping European Jews immigrate to Palestine illegally.
The State of Israel’s independence only served to exacerbate the already serious conflict between the Jews and the Arabs. Indeed, as the British were preparing to leave Palestine, both Arabs and Jews were already purchasing arms abroad, in preparation for the war that both sides knew was about to ensue. On April , 148, the Jewish LEHI and Irgun forces attacked Dayr Yasin, a Palestinian village that had signed a non-aggression pact with the far less aggressive Hagana. Many men, women, and children were killed in the ensuing attack, although it is not clear exactly how many were actually killed. It has traditionally been reported that approximately 50 people were killed at Dayr Yasin. This figure is based on the number reported in local newspapers at the time. However, a new study put out by Bir Zeit University puts the number of people killed at a maximum of 10. (See Prusher, Ilene R., Dispute Over 148 Killings Brings Troubled History to Light, Christian Science Monitor, April 6, 18.)
On May 15, 148, the day after Israel was declared an independent state, a military force made up of the combined armies of Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Jordan attacked it. Although few thought it possible, Israel emerged from this war as the victor; by the time the war ended in 14, Israel had acquired parts of the West Bank and northern Palestine - both of which the UN had reserved for the Palestinian Arabs - in addition to the land that had been allocated to Israel. Furthermore, Jordan had acquired the rest of the West Bank and East Jerusalem, and Egypt had acquired the Gaza Strip - all of which had also been reserved for the Palestinians. The two sides under different names thus remember the war Israelis refer to it as the War of Independence, while Palestinian Arabs call it Al Nakba (The Catastrophe).
The Sinai Campaign
In 15, Colonel Gamal Abd al-Nasser seized power in Egypt in a bloodless coup. As a leader, Nasser espoused what has become known as Nasserism, the major goal of which was to unify all Arabs into a single state. Fearing the loss of access to Arabian oil that could ensue if Nasserism spread, the United States and other countries attempted to weaken Nasser. In 156, the U.S. retracted its offer to finance Egypt’s Aswan Dam. In response, Nasser nationalized the strategically important Suez Canal, which had been under British control since 17. In order to help Britain to regain the Canal, the U.K., France, and Israel decided upon a military strategy with French support, the Israelis would attack Egypt, and then a peacekeeping force from France and the U.K. would enter Egypt, thereby ensuring Western control over the region. Although the campaign went according to plan, the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. pressured France, Britain, and Israel to withdraw their troops. When the three countries eventually did so, Arabs honored Nasser as a leader who had saved the Arab world.
The Creation of the PLO
Driven by his dream to unite the Arabs into a single nation, Nasser convinced Syria, in 158, to join Egypt in the formation of the United Arab Republic (UAR). However, this success was short-lived three years later, Syria, annoyed by what it saw as Egypt’s domination in the UAR, withdrew from the United Arab Republic. Nonetheless, Nasser continued to be a key player in Arab affairs, and, in 164, he hosted two Arab summits; at one of the summits, the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) was born. Based in Egypt, the PLO was to become a key player in Palestinian Arab affairs. Even in the Organization’s infancy, Yasser Arafat, a Palestinian nationalist and the PLO’s future leader, was already the leader of a small PLO faction called FATAH (Opening in Arabic, as in creating an OPENING back to Palestine).
The Six-Day War
Soon after its creation, the PLO began to sponsor attacks on Israel from several fronts. Israel retaliated by attacking Palestinian refugee camps on all the fronts from which the PLO attacks were launched, including Israel’s northern border, which served to exacerbate Israel’s already tense relations with Syria. Finally, in April 167, the Syrian and Israeli air forces fought one another. On May , Nasser blockaded the Straits of Tiran, even though Israeli Prime Minister Levi Eshkol had warned him that such an act would be viewed as an act of war. With the atmosphere of war once again developing, Iraq, Syria, and Jordan sent their respective troops to the Israeli borders.
On June 5, Israel launched a successful preemptive strike against Egyptian air fields in Sinai, effectively destroying the entire Egyptian air force while the latter’s planes were still on the ground. Although Eshkol attempted to convince Jordan’s King Hussein to refrain from involving Jordan in the war, the former was unsuccessful. As a result, Jordan lost East Jerusalem to Israel on June 7.
Attack on the USS Liberty
On June 8, the Israeli military attacked the U.S. Intelligence ship USS Liberty. In the attack, which lasted for 75 minutes, thirty-four American personnel on board the Liberty lost their lives; 171 others were wounded. Israel says its soldiers mistook the Liberty for the Egyptian horse carrier El Quseir. Proponents of this view point out that the United States was Israels only ally; thus, it would have been very much against Israels interest to attack an American vessel. They also emphasize that, although the U.S. flag was clearly visible from the Liberty, and it was a bright, sunny day, mistakes such as these are not uncommon in military engagements. For example, in April 14, the U.S. Air Force accidentally shot down two U.S. Black Hawk helicopters in the No-Fly Zone in Iraq, despite the fact that both Black Hawks had large U.S. flags painted on each side.
However, according to others, the attack on the Liberty was no accident. Proponents of this view emphasize that the U.S. flag was clearly visible from the ship, as mentioned above. They also point out that the El Quseir was significantly smaller than the Liberty, making it difficult to mistake one for the other. Additionally, they say that Israel attacked the Liberty in order to prevent a leakage of information about Israels plans to attack the Golan Heights. According to Admiral Thomas Moorer, Israel was preparing to seize the Golan Heights from Syria despite President Johnsons known opposition to such a move.... I believe Moshe Dayan [, the Israeli Minister of Defense,] concluded that he could prevent Washington from becoming aware of what Israel was up to by destroying the primary source of acquiring that information - the USS Liberty. (See The Link, July-August 17.)
The War Comes to An End
The following day, on June , a cease-fire was signed. All sides involved in the conflict agreed to its terms, and the Six-Day War was concluded.
UN Security Council Resolution 4
Israel had gained a great deal of land in the Six-Day War from Jordan, it had gained East Jerusalem, which was quickly annexed into the capital city of West Jerusalem, and the West Bank; from Syria, it had gained the Golan Heights, and from Egypt, it had gained the Gaza Strip and the entire Sinai Peninsula. In response, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 4 on November , 167. Resolution 4 demanded the Withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict [the Six-Day War] and the Termination of all claims or states of belligerency and respect for and acknowledgement of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of every State in the area and their right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force (i.e., the recognition of the State of Israel by its neighbors). Resolution 4 was not immediately implemented.
UN Security Council Resolution 4
Israel had gained a great deal of land in the Six-Day War from Jordan, it had gained East Jerusalem, which was quickly annexed into the capital city of West Jerusalem, and the West Bank; from Syria, it had gained the Golan Heights, and from Egypt, it had gained the Gaza Strip and the entire Sinai Peninsula. In response, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 4 on November , 167. Resolution 4 demanded the Withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict [the Six-Day War] and the Termination of all claims or states of belligerency and respect for and acknowledgement of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of every State in the area and their right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force (i.e., the recognition of the State of Israel by its neighbors). Resolution 4 was not immediately implemented.
The Yom Kippur War
A war Sadat, Nasser’s successor, came to power in an Egypt that had serious financial troubles, not the least of which were those brought about by the country’s defeat in the Six-Day War. The Sinai oil fields appeared to be a way to alleviate these troubles, but Israel had captured the Sinai Peninsula in 167. Concluding that negotiation with Israel was not an option, Sadat prepared to attack Israel.
On October 6, 17, Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel. The day was well chosen, for it was Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement), the holiest day in the Jewish calendar, and the Israelis were thus quite unprepared for war. For the first three days of the war, the Israelis seemed to have been defeated. However, the U.S. provided Israel with military aid, and, over the course of the next few weeks, the Israelis succeeded in pushing back the Syrians and the Egyptians.
On October , the UN Security Council passed Resolution 8. According to the Resolution, The Security Council (1) Calls upon all parties to present fighting to cease all firing and terminate all military activity immediately… () Calls upon all parties concerned to start immediately after the cease-fire the implementation of Security Council Resolution 4 (167) in all of its parts; () Decided that, immediately and concurrently with the cease-fire, negotiations start between the parties concerned under appropriate auspices aimed at establishing a just and durable peace in the Middle East. However, the peace negotiations demanded by Resolution 8 would not begin for a little under a decade.
The Yom Kippur War formally ended with the Sinai I and II agreements, negotiated by U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissenger. In accordance with the agreements, Israel returned a great deal of the Sinai to Egypt.
The PLO Becomes the Representative of the Palestinian People
King Hussein was dealt a major blow when the Arab League, in October of 174, declared that the PLO, not Jordan, was the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people. Although he was reluctant to accept the Arab League’s declaration, Hussein eventually did so, likely influenced by the fact that twenty other Arab states had already agreed to grant the PLO representation in the League. A month later, the UN General Assembly gave the PLO observer status in the United Nations.
Peace Achieved Between Israel and Egypt
On November 1, 177, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat visited Jerusalem and spoke at the Israeli parliament, the Knesset, emphasizing the need for Israeli peace with Egypt and the Palestinians (i.e., through the creation of a Palestinian state). On September 17, 178, a peace treaty was signed between Israel and Egypt at Camp David, in the United States. Known as the Camp David Accords, the treaty states that [T] he parties are determined to reach a just, comprehensive, and durable settlement of the Middle East conflict through the conclusion of peace treaties based on Security Council resolutions 4 and 8 in all their parts. It is interesting to note that the Accords assume from the outset that Israel will eventually sign peace treaties with Jordan and the Palestinians and thus involve the latter two sides in future negotiations. For example, negotiations regarding the establishment of a self-governing administrative council in the West Bank and Gaza are to be conducted among Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and the elected representatives of the inhabitants of the West Bank and Gaza [i.e., the Palestinians].
In January of 180, Israel and Egypt formally established diplomatic relations. Some Egyptians were greatly upset by this change in Egypt’s political direction, notably members of the then-unknown Organization of Liberation of Egypt. On October 6, 181, three Egyptian soldiers assassinated Sadat; the Organization claimed responsibility. A week later, Hosni Mubarak became president of Egypt, vowing to continue Sadat’s policies. A year later, in accordance with the Camp David Accords, Israel withdrew from the entire Sinai Peninsula, with the exception of Taba, next to the Israeli resort city of Eilat. Finally, in 18, Israel withdrew from Taba. The Hilton Hotel, which had been built in Israeli Taba, remains in use to this day in Egyptian Taba. After Egypt regained Taba, a casino was added to the Hilton.
Peace Between Israel and PLO
On September 1, 1, Israel signed a Declaration of Principles with the PLO, thereby officially (although not necessarily de facto) putting an end to hostilities between the two sides. The Declaration of Principles set up transitional PLO jurisdiction in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip and began a five-year transitional period at the end of which Israel would withdraw from Gaza and Jericho. The Declaration also stipulated that permanent status negotiations were to commence three years later over such issues as the final status of Jerusalem � which both Israel and the Palestinians claimed as a capital � Palestinian refugees, Jewish settlements in the West Bank and Gaza, security arrangements, borders, relations and cooperation with other neighbors, and other issues of common interest. According to Annex IV, Part B, Item 8, The Regional Economic Development Program [to be set up between Israel and the PLO] may consist of… [a] Regional Tourism, Transportation, and Telecommunications Development Plan.
On August , 14, Israel and the PLO signed the Agreement on Preparatory Transfer of Powers and Responsibilities. According to Article II, Item 1, Israel shall transfer and the Palestinian Authority shall assume powers and responsibilities from the Israeli military government and its Civil Administration in the West Bank in the following spheres education and culture, health, social welfare, tourism, direct taxation and Value Added Tax on local production…. According to Annex IV, which is entitled Protocol Concerning Preparatory Transfer of Powers and Responsibilities in the Sphere of Tourism, Israel was to hand over responsibility for tourism in Palestinian areas to the Palestinian Authority (PA). The Annex covers tourism activities conducted by private, public, non-governmental and foreign bodies. The Annex also states The tourism authorities of Israel and the Palestinian Authority shall promote and encourage tourism to the region for the benefit of both sides. Thus, travel companies authorized by the PA were allowed to conduct tours that included Israel in their packages, and clearly marked tourist vehicles originating in PA-controlled areas were allowed to proceed into Israel.
Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty
On October 6, 14, King Hussein’s dream of establishing peace with Israel became a reality. The treaty was especially relevant for tourism. According to Annex V, the Israeli/Jordanian border is to be open in both directions for Israelis, Jordanians, and third country nationals. Existing arrangements are to remain in place for Muslim Israelis who cross into Jordan in transit to Saudi Arabia (which has yet to recognize the State of Israel) for Muslim pilgrimages. Also, border-crossing points are to be open from 800 AM to 60 PM (but closed on Yom Kippur and on the first day of the Muslim Al Hijrah calendar). By contrast, Israel’s widely used Eilat/Taba border is open 4 hours, thus making it far more comfortable and convenient for tourists to cross the border between Israel and Egypt than the border between Israel and Jordan.
Although very little was done in the way of land transfers, one particular transfer is worth mentioning the area on the northern Jordanian/Israeli border known in Israel as Naharayim and in Jordan as Baqura, some of which came under Jordanian sovereignty. Israeli landowners, however, along with their employees and guests, were permitted to go in and out as often as they wished, with no customs or immigration restrictions of any kind. In a very unusual move, the Annex declares that, while the land is under Jordanian sovereignty, the Israeli police department has jurisdiction over incidents solely involving the [Israeli] landowners, their invitees or employees. Further, Jordanian law does not apply to activities in which only Israelis are involved. Land purchases by non-Israelis, however, can only be done with Jordanian approval.
The Naharayim/Baqura region is known for its beautiful nature trails. The peace treaty is thus important in that it eases access to the area for tourists coming from both Jordan and Israel. According to an account by Haim Shapiro, During a recent tour of the site… we entered the Jordanian area without visas, having only registered our Israeli identity cards with the Israeli police post. A Jordanian officer briefly boarded our bus and in fluent Hebrew asked whether he could wish us Shabbat Shalom even if it was only noon Friday. As we toured the area in our Israeli bus, a Jordanian bus entered the area from the other side. The passengers in each waved to each other. (Haim Shapiro, Day Tripper Down by the Riverside, The Jerusalem Post, March 1, 17.)
Mind that the sample papers like EventsLeading Up To The Establishment Of the State Of Isreal presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
One cannot discuss the Arab-Israeli conflict without first examining the events leading up to the establishment of the State of Israel. These events will thus be discussed in this section.
Although Jews have, over the eighteen centuries since the Roman Exile, maintained a constant presence (albeit small) in the Land of Israel, the modern concept of Zionism � which led to the formation of the State of Israel � has its roots in nineteenth century Europe. There, Jews experienced the political and scientific renaissance known as the Emancipation, which gave Jews the chance to break their general isolation from the day-to-day affairs of the countries in which they resided. Many Jews adopted the ethno-nationalist political ideology that was developing in Europe at the time and set up moshavim � communities which were financed largely by Baron Edmund de Rothschild of Paris � and socialist communes (called kibbutzim) in Israel, their ancient homeland. The first wave of Jews who were so inclined arrived in Israel (then known as Palestine) in 188, in what is known as the First Aliyah (going up the way Jews describe their immigration to the Holy Land).
Other Jews assimilated into their host countries. One such Jew was Theodor Herzl, a Hungarian-born reporter. Although he was fully assimilated into European society, Herzl’s life and worldview changed dramatically in 185, when he covered the court martial of Captain Alfred Dreyfus. The court martial resulted from the French intelligence services’ discovery of a secret military document that had been transmitted from a French officer to the military attach� of the German Embassy in Paris. Although evidence seemed to indicate that the actual traitor was Major Ferdinand Walsin Ester hazy, a Hungarian who had connections to the Germans, the French military establishment refused to believe that Ester hazy was guilty. Instead, they blamed Dreyfus, primarily because he was a Jew, which made him, in the eyes of the French military, a likely traitor. On January 5, 185, following a secret court martial, Dreyfus was public ally demoted and exiled for life to Devil’s Island, near South America.
At the public demotion ceremony, Herzl heard many anti-Semitic epithets being uttered by members of the crowd, including Death to the Jews. Herzl came to the conclusion that, no matter how much the Jews assimilated into their host countries, they would always be persecuted. The only solution, Herzl believed, would be the exodus of Jews from these countries to a specifically Jewish country. Although he died in 104, decades before the formation of the State of Israel, the state owes its existence in large part to Herzl’s ideas.
Throughout the first half of the twentieth century, Jewish immigration to Israel continued. The climactic event of this period, however, took place not in Israel but rather in Nazi Germany, in which millions of Jews, forced to remain in Germany because they had nowhere else to go, perished in the Holocaust. The Holocaust was such a powerful demonstration of Herzl’s reasons for setting up a Jewish country being taken to their logical extreme that that Jewish country, the State of Israel, was declared just three years following the end of World War II, on May 14, 148.
World War II
The events of World War II had a major impact on the future State of Israel. From an Israeli perspective, the most significant event of World War II was the Holocaust.
Just prior to the Holocaust, many Jews tried to escape from Germany. Many attempted to get into the United States, but they were turned down. The same thing happened in other countries. As a result, they were forced to return and eventually perished in the Death Camps. Others tried to immigrate to Israel (Palestine), but the British (who had were in charge of a Mandate government in the region) purposely instituted policies that made it quite difficult for many Jews to immigrate to Israel.
In 1, the British government put forth a new White Paper in an attempt to appease the local Arab population. Among other things, the White Paper of 1 put significant restrictions on the numbers of Jews who would be allowed to immigrate to Israel; for all intents and purposes the White Paper closed the gates to Jewish immigration.
Jews living in Israel thus faced a serious dilemma on the one hand, they wanted to assist the British in their efforts to fight the Nazis in Europe; on the other hand, however, they wanted to fight the British efforts in Israel to prevent Jewish immigration. This love/hate attitude toward the British was best summed up by future Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion - at the time, the Chairman of the Jewish Agency Executive We will fight Hitler as if no White Paper existed and we will fight the White Paper as if Hitler did not exist. Thus, Jews would assist the British in Europe, but they would reserve a right to fight against the British in Israel.
One of the most famous Jews who fought in Europe was Hanna Senesh, an immigrant from Hungary who came to Israel in 1. Although she enrolled in the Nahalal Agricultural School and intended to become a farmer on a kibbutz, history had other plans for her. Just a few short years after her arrival in Israel, Senesh - along with the rest of the world - began to learn of the Nazi Holocaust back in Europe. She soon volunteered to serve in an elite unit of Jewish paratroopers. After undergoing grueling commando training, Senesh was chosen, along with 1 other volunteers, to parachute into Europe to fight the Nazis head-on.
In January 144, she parachuted into Yugoslavia and crossed into Hungary. Unfortunately, Hungarian Partisans, known for their anti-Semitism, caught her. The Partisans turned her over to the Nazis. For five months, she was held in a Gestapo jail in Budapest, where she was severely tortured. As hard as they tried, however, the Nazis could not break her. Finally, on November 7, 144, Senesh was executed by a firing squad; she refused to be blindfolded. Hanah Senesh was reburied in Jerusalem in 150.
Meanwhile, back in Israel, the majorities of the Irgun (the Jewish National Military Organization, or Irgun Tzvah Leumi - commonly abbreviated Etzel) decided to cease fighting against the British and, instead, assist them in Europe. However, Avraham Stern led a small faction of the Irgun against the British. Stern believed that the war in Europe was so important to the British that they would be more than willing to make concessions to Jews in Israel if this proved necessary. He even negotiated with the Germans and the Italians!
Soon, Stern found it necessary to break with the Irgun altogether. He formed the LEHI (Lochamei Cherut Yisrael - Freedom Fighters of Israel), also known as the Stern Gang. The British did everything possible to track LEHI members. Finally, in 14, the British arrested Stern himself and killed him shortly thereafter. This only served to make Stern a martyr to LEHI members, and their resolve to attack the British was strengthened with Sterns death.
Meanwhile, at about the same time as Sterns death, Irgun leader David Raziel was killed in Iraq while on a mission for the British. He was replaced with future Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin. By 144, it had become clear that the Allies would win the War. Consequently, on February 1, Begin announced that the Irgun was resuming its fight against the British.
As the world outside of Germany began to learn the gruesome details of the Holocaust, the Jews of Israel increased their pressure on the British to rescind the White Paper and allow Holocaust survivors to come to Israel. The British, however, refused to cooperate. As a result, the struggle against the British intensified - especially from the LEHI, whose members considered any British policeman or soldier a legitimate target.
With more and more British being killed in Israel, the people of the United Kingdom increased their demands that the British pull out of Israel altogether. The British finally gave up, returning the Mandate for Palestine to the United Nations in 147.
For many Jews, the events of World War II underscored the need for a safe haven for Jews, so that they would never again be without a place to flee from anti-Semitism in the Diaspora. Consequently, the State of Israel was founded in 148, just three years after World War II ended.
The Arab-Israel Conflict Prior to the State of Israel’s Establishment
After World War I, the League of Nations gave France and the United Kingdom control of the region that had been liberated from the Ottoman Empire France was given Lebanon and Syria, while the UK was given Iraq and Palestine (modern-day Israel � including Gaza and the West Bank � and Jordan). The stated reason for the French and British presence was to prepare the regions in question for independence.
In Palestine, the Jewish population was increasing rapidly. Under the leadership of future Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion, large tracts of land were purchased from Arabs, many of who resided abroad. Alarmed at their ever-shrinking majority, the Arabs in Palestine began to take defensive measures. Palestinian Arab nationalist organizations were set up, including the Higher Arab Council, which attempted to influence British policy and to counter the activities of the Zionists. Haj Amin al-Husseini, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, tried to garner foreign support for the cessation of Zionist activity and for the conclusion of the British mandate. The British, in an effort to win Arab support, issued several White Papers, which restricted Jewish immigration. Palestinian Jews, however, fought the White Papers by helping European Jews immigrate to Palestine illegally.
The State of Israel’s independence only served to exacerbate the already serious conflict between the Jews and the Arabs. Indeed, as the British were preparing to leave Palestine, both Arabs and Jews were already purchasing arms abroad, in preparation for the war that both sides knew was about to ensue. On April , 148, the Jewish LEHI and Irgun forces attacked Dayr Yasin, a Palestinian village that had signed a non-aggression pact with the far less aggressive Hagana. Many men, women, and children were killed in the ensuing attack, although it is not clear exactly how many were actually killed. It has traditionally been reported that approximately 50 people were killed at Dayr Yasin. This figure is based on the number reported in local newspapers at the time. However, a new study put out by Bir Zeit University puts the number of people killed at a maximum of 10. (See Prusher, Ilene R., Dispute Over 148 Killings Brings Troubled History to Light, Christian Science Monitor, April 6, 18.)
On May 15, 148, the day after Israel was declared an independent state, a military force made up of the combined armies of Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Jordan attacked it. Although few thought it possible, Israel emerged from this war as the victor; by the time the war ended in 14, Israel had acquired parts of the West Bank and northern Palestine - both of which the UN had reserved for the Palestinian Arabs - in addition to the land that had been allocated to Israel. Furthermore, Jordan had acquired the rest of the West Bank and East Jerusalem, and Egypt had acquired the Gaza Strip - all of which had also been reserved for the Palestinians. The two sides under different names thus remember the war Israelis refer to it as the War of Independence, while Palestinian Arabs call it Al Nakba (The Catastrophe).
The Sinai Campaign
In 15, Colonel Gamal Abd al-Nasser seized power in Egypt in a bloodless coup. As a leader, Nasser espoused what has become known as Nasserism, the major goal of which was to unify all Arabs into a single state. Fearing the loss of access to Arabian oil that could ensue if Nasserism spread, the United States and other countries attempted to weaken Nasser. In 156, the U.S. retracted its offer to finance Egypt’s Aswan Dam. In response, Nasser nationalized the strategically important Suez Canal, which had been under British control since 17. In order to help Britain to regain the Canal, the U.K., France, and Israel decided upon a military strategy with French support, the Israelis would attack Egypt, and then a peacekeeping force from France and the U.K. would enter Egypt, thereby ensuring Western control over the region. Although the campaign went according to plan, the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. pressured France, Britain, and Israel to withdraw their troops. When the three countries eventually did so, Arabs honored Nasser as a leader who had saved the Arab world.
The Creation of the PLO
Driven by his dream to unite the Arabs into a single nation, Nasser convinced Syria, in 158, to join Egypt in the formation of the United Arab Republic (UAR). However, this success was short-lived three years later, Syria, annoyed by what it saw as Egypt’s domination in the UAR, withdrew from the United Arab Republic. Nonetheless, Nasser continued to be a key player in Arab affairs, and, in 164, he hosted two Arab summits; at one of the summits, the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) was born. Based in Egypt, the PLO was to become a key player in Palestinian Arab affairs. Even in the Organization’s infancy, Yasser Arafat, a Palestinian nationalist and the PLO’s future leader, was already the leader of a small PLO faction called FATAH (Opening in Arabic, as in creating an OPENING back to Palestine).
The Six-Day War
Soon after its creation, the PLO began to sponsor attacks on Israel from several fronts. Israel retaliated by attacking Palestinian refugee camps on all the fronts from which the PLO attacks were launched, including Israel’s northern border, which served to exacerbate Israel’s already tense relations with Syria. Finally, in April 167, the Syrian and Israeli air forces fought one another. On May , Nasser blockaded the Straits of Tiran, even though Israeli Prime Minister Levi Eshkol had warned him that such an act would be viewed as an act of war. With the atmosphere of war once again developing, Iraq, Syria, and Jordan sent their respective troops to the Israeli borders.
On June 5, Israel launched a successful preemptive strike against Egyptian air fields in Sinai, effectively destroying the entire Egyptian air force while the latter’s planes were still on the ground. Although Eshkol attempted to convince Jordan’s King Hussein to refrain from involving Jordan in the war, the former was unsuccessful. As a result, Jordan lost East Jerusalem to Israel on June 7.
Attack on the USS Liberty
On June 8, the Israeli military attacked the U.S. Intelligence ship USS Liberty. In the attack, which lasted for 75 minutes, thirty-four American personnel on board the Liberty lost their lives; 171 others were wounded. Israel says its soldiers mistook the Liberty for the Egyptian horse carrier El Quseir. Proponents of this view point out that the United States was Israels only ally; thus, it would have been very much against Israels interest to attack an American vessel. They also emphasize that, although the U.S. flag was clearly visible from the Liberty, and it was a bright, sunny day, mistakes such as these are not uncommon in military engagements. For example, in April 14, the U.S. Air Force accidentally shot down two U.S. Black Hawk helicopters in the No-Fly Zone in Iraq, despite the fact that both Black Hawks had large U.S. flags painted on each side.
However, according to others, the attack on the Liberty was no accident. Proponents of this view emphasize that the U.S. flag was clearly visible from the ship, as mentioned above. They also point out that the El Quseir was significantly smaller than the Liberty, making it difficult to mistake one for the other. Additionally, they say that Israel attacked the Liberty in order to prevent a leakage of information about Israels plans to attack the Golan Heights. According to Admiral Thomas Moorer, Israel was preparing to seize the Golan Heights from Syria despite President Johnsons known opposition to such a move.... I believe Moshe Dayan [, the Israeli Minister of Defense,] concluded that he could prevent Washington from becoming aware of what Israel was up to by destroying the primary source of acquiring that information - the USS Liberty. (See The Link, July-August 17.)
The War Comes to An End
The following day, on June , a cease-fire was signed. All sides involved in the conflict agreed to its terms, and the Six-Day War was concluded.
UN Security Council Resolution 4
Israel had gained a great deal of land in the Six-Day War from Jordan, it had gained East Jerusalem, which was quickly annexed into the capital city of West Jerusalem, and the West Bank; from Syria, it had gained the Golan Heights, and from Egypt, it had gained the Gaza Strip and the entire Sinai Peninsula. In response, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 4 on November , 167. Resolution 4 demanded the Withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict [the Six-Day War] and the Termination of all claims or states of belligerency and respect for and acknowledgement of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of every State in the area and their right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force (i.e., the recognition of the State of Israel by its neighbors). Resolution 4 was not immediately implemented.
UN Security Council Resolution 4
Israel had gained a great deal of land in the Six-Day War from Jordan, it had gained East Jerusalem, which was quickly annexed into the capital city of West Jerusalem, and the West Bank; from Syria, it had gained the Golan Heights, and from Egypt, it had gained the Gaza Strip and the entire Sinai Peninsula. In response, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 4 on November , 167. Resolution 4 demanded the Withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict [the Six-Day War] and the Termination of all claims or states of belligerency and respect for and acknowledgement of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of every State in the area and their right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force (i.e., the recognition of the State of Israel by its neighbors). Resolution 4 was not immediately implemented.
The Yom Kippur War
A war Sadat, Nasser’s successor, came to power in an Egypt that had serious financial troubles, not the least of which were those brought about by the country’s defeat in the Six-Day War. The Sinai oil fields appeared to be a way to alleviate these troubles, but Israel had captured the Sinai Peninsula in 167. Concluding that negotiation with Israel was not an option, Sadat prepared to attack Israel.
On October 6, 17, Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel. The day was well chosen, for it was Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement), the holiest day in the Jewish calendar, and the Israelis were thus quite unprepared for war. For the first three days of the war, the Israelis seemed to have been defeated. However, the U.S. provided Israel with military aid, and, over the course of the next few weeks, the Israelis succeeded in pushing back the Syrians and the Egyptians.
On October , the UN Security Council passed Resolution 8. According to the Resolution, The Security Council (1) Calls upon all parties to present fighting to cease all firing and terminate all military activity immediately… () Calls upon all parties concerned to start immediately after the cease-fire the implementation of Security Council Resolution 4 (167) in all of its parts; () Decided that, immediately and concurrently with the cease-fire, negotiations start between the parties concerned under appropriate auspices aimed at establishing a just and durable peace in the Middle East. However, the peace negotiations demanded by Resolution 8 would not begin for a little under a decade.
The Yom Kippur War formally ended with the Sinai I and II agreements, negotiated by U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissenger. In accordance with the agreements, Israel returned a great deal of the Sinai to Egypt.
The PLO Becomes the Representative of the Palestinian People
King Hussein was dealt a major blow when the Arab League, in October of 174, declared that the PLO, not Jordan, was the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people. Although he was reluctant to accept the Arab League’s declaration, Hussein eventually did so, likely influenced by the fact that twenty other Arab states had already agreed to grant the PLO representation in the League. A month later, the UN General Assembly gave the PLO observer status in the United Nations.
Peace Achieved Between Israel and Egypt
On November 1, 177, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat visited Jerusalem and spoke at the Israeli parliament, the Knesset, emphasizing the need for Israeli peace with Egypt and the Palestinians (i.e., through the creation of a Palestinian state). On September 17, 178, a peace treaty was signed between Israel and Egypt at Camp David, in the United States. Known as the Camp David Accords, the treaty states that [T] he parties are determined to reach a just, comprehensive, and durable settlement of the Middle East conflict through the conclusion of peace treaties based on Security Council resolutions 4 and 8 in all their parts. It is interesting to note that the Accords assume from the outset that Israel will eventually sign peace treaties with Jordan and the Palestinians and thus involve the latter two sides in future negotiations. For example, negotiations regarding the establishment of a self-governing administrative council in the West Bank and Gaza are to be conducted among Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and the elected representatives of the inhabitants of the West Bank and Gaza [i.e., the Palestinians].
In January of 180, Israel and Egypt formally established diplomatic relations. Some Egyptians were greatly upset by this change in Egypt’s political direction, notably members of the then-unknown Organization of Liberation of Egypt. On October 6, 181, three Egyptian soldiers assassinated Sadat; the Organization claimed responsibility. A week later, Hosni Mubarak became president of Egypt, vowing to continue Sadat’s policies. A year later, in accordance with the Camp David Accords, Israel withdrew from the entire Sinai Peninsula, with the exception of Taba, next to the Israeli resort city of Eilat. Finally, in 18, Israel withdrew from Taba. The Hilton Hotel, which had been built in Israeli Taba, remains in use to this day in Egyptian Taba. After Egypt regained Taba, a casino was added to the Hilton.
Peace Between Israel and PLO
On September 1, 1, Israel signed a Declaration of Principles with the PLO, thereby officially (although not necessarily de facto) putting an end to hostilities between the two sides. The Declaration of Principles set up transitional PLO jurisdiction in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip and began a five-year transitional period at the end of which Israel would withdraw from Gaza and Jericho. The Declaration also stipulated that permanent status negotiations were to commence three years later over such issues as the final status of Jerusalem � which both Israel and the Palestinians claimed as a capital � Palestinian refugees, Jewish settlements in the West Bank and Gaza, security arrangements, borders, relations and cooperation with other neighbors, and other issues of common interest. According to Annex IV, Part B, Item 8, The Regional Economic Development Program [to be set up between Israel and the PLO] may consist of… [a] Regional Tourism, Transportation, and Telecommunications Development Plan.
On August , 14, Israel and the PLO signed the Agreement on Preparatory Transfer of Powers and Responsibilities. According to Article II, Item 1, Israel shall transfer and the Palestinian Authority shall assume powers and responsibilities from the Israeli military government and its Civil Administration in the West Bank in the following spheres education and culture, health, social welfare, tourism, direct taxation and Value Added Tax on local production…. According to Annex IV, which is entitled Protocol Concerning Preparatory Transfer of Powers and Responsibilities in the Sphere of Tourism, Israel was to hand over responsibility for tourism in Palestinian areas to the Palestinian Authority (PA). The Annex covers tourism activities conducted by private, public, non-governmental and foreign bodies. The Annex also states The tourism authorities of Israel and the Palestinian Authority shall promote and encourage tourism to the region for the benefit of both sides. Thus, travel companies authorized by the PA were allowed to conduct tours that included Israel in their packages, and clearly marked tourist vehicles originating in PA-controlled areas were allowed to proceed into Israel.
Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty
On October 6, 14, King Hussein’s dream of establishing peace with Israel became a reality. The treaty was especially relevant for tourism. According to Annex V, the Israeli/Jordanian border is to be open in both directions for Israelis, Jordanians, and third country nationals. Existing arrangements are to remain in place for Muslim Israelis who cross into Jordan in transit to Saudi Arabia (which has yet to recognize the State of Israel) for Muslim pilgrimages. Also, border-crossing points are to be open from 800 AM to 60 PM (but closed on Yom Kippur and on the first day of the Muslim Al Hijrah calendar). By contrast, Israel’s widely used Eilat/Taba border is open 4 hours, thus making it far more comfortable and convenient for tourists to cross the border between Israel and Egypt than the border between Israel and Jordan.
Although very little was done in the way of land transfers, one particular transfer is worth mentioning the area on the northern Jordanian/Israeli border known in Israel as Naharayim and in Jordan as Baqura, some of which came under Jordanian sovereignty. Israeli landowners, however, along with their employees and guests, were permitted to go in and out as often as they wished, with no customs or immigration restrictions of any kind. In a very unusual move, the Annex declares that, while the land is under Jordanian sovereignty, the Israeli police department has jurisdiction over incidents solely involving the [Israeli] landowners, their invitees or employees. Further, Jordanian law does not apply to activities in which only Israelis are involved. Land purchases by non-Israelis, however, can only be done with Jordanian approval.
The Naharayim/Baqura region is known for its beautiful nature trails. The peace treaty is thus important in that it eases access to the area for tourists coming from both Jordan and Israel. According to an account by Haim Shapiro, During a recent tour of the site… we entered the Jordanian area without visas, having only registered our Israeli identity cards with the Israeli police post. A Jordanian officer briefly boarded our bus and in fluent Hebrew asked whether he could wish us Shabbat Shalom even if it was only noon Friday. As we toured the area in our Israeli bus, a Jordanian bus entered the area from the other side. The passengers in each waved to each other. (Haim Shapiro, Day Tripper Down by the Riverside, The Jerusalem Post, March 1, 17.)
Mind that the sample papers like EventsLeading Up To The Establishment Of the State Of Isreal presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
Tuesday, 3 July 2012
gays in the media and military
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Why is it that when a gay is exposed in the military, the country halts and pays full attention to the fact that a “queer” might be fighting for this great nation? And why is it that an entire state can be shocked by the community who’s football team’s star quarterback is a “fag?”
Will it matter then if the soldier leads this country into battle as an integral part of the army? And will it matter then if that quarterback leads the team to the state championship? Most likely, it won’t.
On top of the negativity that exists about gays/lesbians in the media one of the biggest concerns homosexuals have is lack of representation (in the media.)
There have been numerous gay rights marches, speakers, and not so pleasant beatings and brutal killings that somehow don’t make it to the news scene. In fact, in 15, 1% of 7,47 bias-motivated crimes reported to the FBI were committed out of sexual-orientation bias. (Hate Crime Statistics, 5.) While there are some, typically, there are no reports of these happenings in newspapers or television shows. However, there are a tremendous amount of half hour shows on what celebrities wore to the Grammy’s and who can survive on secluded island-eating bugs for six weeks. Where are our countries values?
The gay and lesbian community in this country has fought over countless incidents of negative feelings and prejudices in their role in the military and on high school teams. In the past 0 years they have strived to gain political, social, and religious respect, though the fight is still far from over. Some feel gays have made incredible strides, while others feel there has been little to no improvement from the
160-70’s. (Israel, 1.)
Not only should the gay and lesbian community receive coverage in the news, the attention given should be positive. In order to cast the proper view of homosexuals, the ever so important media needs to promote the educational basis to the public that will aid people in becoming more receptive and tolerant. (Israel, 17.) The media has such a large impact and influence on our society, thus the media’s bias plays a large role in what the country sees and how they see it.
Dr. Dane S. Claussen, the Assistant Professor of Communications & Mass Media at Southwest Missouri State University, believes that the following issues could have received much more media attention “men’s efforts to be openly gay Boy Scout leaders and several boys’ efforts to be openly gay Boy Scouts, the situation of men who are or are not openly gay in college fraternities, or would like to join college fraternities; gay athletes in high school, college and professional sports.” (Claussen) Opposing that are those who feel that the coverage of those issues is a little too much to ask. The media likes to focus on important eye catching material that will lure viewers, readers, or listeners. Media tends to cover HIV/AIDS, same-sex marriage, gay/lesbian parents adopting or retaining custody of children, gays/lesbians in the military, gay/lesbian politicians and entertainers, gay/lesbian characters and themes in television shows and movies, gay pride parades, and the role of gays/lesbians in organized religions because these issues are headliners. However, there are some alarming statistics that go unnoticed due to this topic’s lack of popularity.
For example, in 15, male homosexuals were the victims of the second largest amount of bias-violence to blacks who had the highest numbers. (Hate Crime Statistics, 1.) Yet the issues previously mentioned are just the controversial topics, the particular one’s the public is interested in. Underneath all of this is the reality that there really is little to no coverage of gays/lesbians in the media. (Claussen.) All the media covers are these particular issues, not the “typical homosexual” who is left in the background. The problem is, all gays aren’t afflicted with HIV/AIDS and all homosexuals are not in the military. There aren’t many gay entertainers and not all gay/lesbian parents have made the choice to adopt a child. The media tends to focus on specific examples that pertain to only a fraction of the gay community. With only bias coverage on gay/lesbian lifestyle, it is no wonder that the American public cannot see homosexuals as anything more then what these incidents portray gays/lesbians to be. Unfortunately the media does not give their reports in raw form. Everything we see, hear or read has been edited first. Through this careful selection process, important information may have been tossed, but no matter, the work is still produced. Unless having a first hand experience, the public has to rely on what the media shows them. If they (the media) show nothing at all, then the public takes their own views and opinions and shapes them, more often then not, into hatred. On the other hand, had gays/lesbians been shown as people just like you and me, the risk of hate crimes in this country towards gays/lesbians would most likely be reduced.
A vivid example of the media’s coverage of the gay/lesbian community is the controversial topic of gays/lesbians in the military in recent years. It began receiving media attention when more and more soldiers were “suing the U.S. Government to allow them to remain in the service…” (Claussen.) Although the “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell, Don’t Pursue” policy has been implemented in U.S. forces, military officials believe it is not as effective as they may have hoped because some have been using this as an “out” from grueling military service, yet gay and lesbian organizations disagree. In the coverage the media has given this controversial matter, one important fact seemed to be left out. This one important fact has the potential to be what changes people’s views and may make some see how gays and lesbians serving in the military isn’t really all that bad. The media fails to report that there are numerous gays and lesbians serving in the military who have not been discharged by the personnel around them who are aware of their homosexuality. That forgotten fact is crucial.
Also, “once again the ethnocentric U.S. media have almost entirely overlooked the fact that openly gay men serve in other countries militaries without harming morale or effectiveness; are U.S. journalists so completely ignorant of the world, do they think the Unites States are so different from other countries and has nothing to learn from them, and/or do they support the U.S. military’s prejudice and ignorance? We do not know.” (Claussen) Dr. Claussen is saying that our country must be so arrogant that we cannot take and learn from other nations tolerance and acceptance of others. I agree with him because the U.S. really has a lot to learn in order to live up to the potential of one great nation, “for liberty and justice for all.”
In case you’re wondering, no, I’m not a lesbian. Maybe one would think that I am because I chose this topic, but I’m not. I just feel that it is crucial for the public to have important information concerning gays/lesbians at their (the public’s) disposal. Also, aside from mentioning only particular interests, I think it would be beneficial for the media to promote gay/lesbian awareness and include the positive aspects of their lifestyle and strides they’ve made as opposed to only defeats and hate crimes.
Before writing this paper, prejudices against the gay/lesbian community always concerned me because one of my best friends is a lesbian. She is not mentioned in newscasts or articles because she is considered to be a “normal” lesbian. That meaning she hasn’t adopted a child, or become affected with the HIV/AIDS virus. She’s just her, nothing special or fancy; she’s just a lesbian; she’s just Jen.
Unfortunately, I think to some extent that there will always be intolerance in society, whether it’s racial, religious or based on sexual preference. Hopefully, with the media’s help on their side, the gay/lesbian community can take hold of the public and show them that same sex relationships do not make them (gay/lesbian people) the devil, as many with anti views feel. I find it sad that no matter how big this society’s media grows, it’ll never be powerful unless it starts letting the discriminated minority in.
Mind that the sample papers like gays in the media and military presented are to be used for review only. In order to warn you and eliminate any plagiarism writing intentions, it is highly recommended not to use the essays in class. In cases you experience difficulties with essay writing in class and for in class use, order original papers with our expert writers. Cheap custom papers can be written from scratch for each customer that entrusts his or her academic success to our writing team. Order your unique assignment from the best custom writing services cheap and fast!
Why is it that when a gay is exposed in the military, the country halts and pays full attention to the fact that a “queer” might be fighting for this great nation? And why is it that an entire state can be shocked by the community who’s football team’s star quarterback is a “fag?”
Will it matter then if the soldier leads this country into battle as an integral part of the army? And will it matter then if that quarterback leads the team to the state championship? Most likely, it won’t.
On top of the negativity that exists about gays/lesbians in the media one of the biggest concerns homosexuals have is lack of representation (in the media.)
There have been numerous gay rights marches, speakers, and not so pleasant beatings and brutal killings that somehow don’t make it to the news scene. In fact, in 15, 1% of 7,47 bias-motivated crimes reported to the FBI were committed out of sexual-orientation bias. (Hate Crime Statistics, 5.) While there are some, typically, there are no reports of these happenings in newspapers or television shows. However, there are a tremendous amount of half hour shows on what celebrities wore to the Grammy’s and who can survive on secluded island-eating bugs for six weeks. Where are our countries values?
The gay and lesbian community in this country has fought over countless incidents of negative feelings and prejudices in their role in the military and on high school teams. In the past 0 years they have strived to gain political, social, and religious respect, though the fight is still far from over. Some feel gays have made incredible strides, while others feel there has been little to no improvement from the
160-70’s. (Israel, 1.)
Not only should the gay and lesbian community receive coverage in the news, the attention given should be positive. In order to cast the proper view of homosexuals, the ever so important media needs to promote the educational basis to the public that will aid people in becoming more receptive and tolerant. (Israel, 17.) The media has such a large impact and influence on our society, thus the media’s bias plays a large role in what the country sees and how they see it.
Dr. Dane S. Claussen, the Assistant Professor of Communications & Mass Media at Southwest Missouri State University, believes that the following issues could have received much more media attention “men’s efforts to be openly gay Boy Scout leaders and several boys’ efforts to be openly gay Boy Scouts, the situation of men who are or are not openly gay in college fraternities, or would like to join college fraternities; gay athletes in high school, college and professional sports.” (Claussen) Opposing that are those who feel that the coverage of those issues is a little too much to ask. The media likes to focus on important eye catching material that will lure viewers, readers, or listeners. Media tends to cover HIV/AIDS, same-sex marriage, gay/lesbian parents adopting or retaining custody of children, gays/lesbians in the military, gay/lesbian politicians and entertainers, gay/lesbian characters and themes in television shows and movies, gay pride parades, and the role of gays/lesbians in organized religions because these issues are headliners. However, there are some alarming statistics that go unnoticed due to this topic’s lack of popularity.
For example, in 15, male homosexuals were the victims of the second largest amount of bias-violence to blacks who had the highest numbers. (Hate Crime Statistics, 1.) Yet the issues previously mentioned are just the controversial topics, the particular one’s the public is interested in. Underneath all of this is the reality that there really is little to no coverage of gays/lesbians in the media. (Claussen.) All the media covers are these particular issues, not the “typical homosexual” who is left in the background. The problem is, all gays aren’t afflicted with HIV/AIDS and all homosexuals are not in the military. There aren’t many gay entertainers and not all gay/lesbian parents have made the choice to adopt a child. The media tends to focus on specific examples that pertain to only a fraction of the gay community. With only bias coverage on gay/lesbian lifestyle, it is no wonder that the American public cannot see homosexuals as anything more then what these incidents portray gays/lesbians to be. Unfortunately the media does not give their reports in raw form. Everything we see, hear or read has been edited first. Through this careful selection process, important information may have been tossed, but no matter, the work is still produced. Unless having a first hand experience, the public has to rely on what the media shows them. If they (the media) show nothing at all, then the public takes their own views and opinions and shapes them, more often then not, into hatred. On the other hand, had gays/lesbians been shown as people just like you and me, the risk of hate crimes in this country towards gays/lesbians would most likely be reduced.
A vivid example of the media’s coverage of the gay/lesbian community is the controversial topic of gays/lesbians in the military in recent years. It began receiving media attention when more and more soldiers were “suing the U.S. Government to allow them to remain in the service…” (Claussen.) Although the “Don’t Ask, Don’t Tell, Don’t Pursue” policy has been implemented in U.S. forces, military officials believe it is not as effective as they may have hoped because some have been using this as an “out” from grueling military service, yet gay and lesbian organizations disagree. In the coverage the media has given this controversial matter, one important fact seemed to be left out. This one important fact has the potential to be what changes people’s views and may make some see how gays and lesbians serving in the military isn’t really all that bad. The media fails to report that there are numerous gays and lesbians serving in the military who have not been discharged by the personnel around them who are aware of their homosexuality. That forgotten fact is crucial.
Also, “once again the ethnocentric U.S. media have almost entirely overlooked the fact that openly gay men serve in other countries militaries without harming morale or effectiveness; are U.S. journalists so completely ignorant of the world, do they think the Unites States are so different from other countries and has nothing to learn from them, and/or do they support the U.S. military’s prejudice and ignorance? We do not know.” (Claussen) Dr. Claussen is saying that our country must be so arrogant that we cannot take and learn from other nations tolerance and acceptance of others. I agree with him because the U.S. really has a lot to learn in order to live up to the potential of one great nation, “for liberty and justice for all.”
In case you’re wondering, no, I’m not a lesbian. Maybe one would think that I am because I chose this topic, but I’m not. I just feel that it is crucial for the public to have important information concerning gays/lesbians at their (the public’s) disposal. Also, aside from mentioning only particular interests, I think it would be beneficial for the media to promote gay/lesbian awareness and include the positive aspects of their lifestyle and strides they’ve made as opposed to only defeats and hate crimes.
Before writing this paper, prejudices against the gay/lesbian community always concerned me because one of my best friends is a lesbian. She is not mentioned in newscasts or articles because she is considered to be a “normal” lesbian. That meaning she hasn’t adopted a child, or become affected with the HIV/AIDS virus. She’s just her, nothing special or fancy; she’s just a lesbian; she’s just Jen.
Unfortunately, I think to some extent that there will always be intolerance in society, whether it’s racial, religious or based on sexual preference. Hopefully, with the media’s help on their side, the gay/lesbian community can take hold of the public and show them that same sex relationships do not make them (gay/lesbian people) the devil, as many with anti views feel. I find it sad that no matter how big this society’s media grows, it’ll never be powerful unless it starts letting the discriminated minority in.
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