EventsLeading Up To The Establishment Of the State Of Isreal

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One cannot discuss the Arab-Israeli conflict without first examining the events leading up to the establishment of the State of Israel. These events will thus be discussed in this section.

Although Jews have, over the eighteen centuries since the Roman Exile, maintained a constant presence (albeit small) in the Land of Israel, the modern concept of Zionism � which led to the formation of the State of Israel � has its roots in nineteenth century Europe. There, Jews experienced the political and scientific renaissance known as the Emancipation, which gave Jews the chance to break their general isolation from the day-to-day affairs of the countries in which they resided. Many Jews adopted the ethno-nationalist political ideology that was developing in Europe at the time and set up moshavim � communities which were financed largely by Baron Edmund de Rothschild of Paris � and socialist communes (called kibbutzim) in Israel, their ancient homeland. The first wave of Jews who were so inclined arrived in Israel (then known as Palestine) in 188, in what is known as the First Aliyah (going up the way Jews describe their immigration to the Holy Land).

Other Jews assimilated into their host countries. One such Jew was Theodor Herzl, a Hungarian-born reporter. Although he was fully assimilated into European society, Herzl’s life and worldview changed dramatically in 185, when he covered the court martial of Captain Alfred Dreyfus. The court martial resulted from the French intelligence services’ discovery of a secret military document that had been transmitted from a French officer to the military attach� of the German Embassy in Paris. Although evidence seemed to indicate that the actual traitor was Major Ferdinand Walsin Ester hazy, a Hungarian who had connections to the Germans, the French military establishment refused to believe that Ester hazy was guilty. Instead, they blamed Dreyfus, primarily because he was a Jew, which made him, in the eyes of the French military, a likely traitor. On January 5, 185, following a secret court martial, Dreyfus was public ally demoted and exiled for life to Devil’s Island, near South America.

At the public demotion ceremony, Herzl heard many anti-Semitic epithets being uttered by members of the crowd, including Death to the Jews. Herzl came to the conclusion that, no matter how much the Jews assimilated into their host countries, they would always be persecuted. The only solution, Herzl believed, would be the exodus of Jews from these countries to a specifically Jewish country. Although he died in 104, decades before the formation of the State of Israel, the state owes its existence in large part to Herzl’s ideas.




Throughout the first half of the twentieth century, Jewish immigration to Israel continued. The climactic event of this period, however, took place not in Israel but rather in Nazi Germany, in which millions of Jews, forced to remain in Germany because they had nowhere else to go, perished in the Holocaust. The Holocaust was such a powerful demonstration of Herzl’s reasons for setting up a Jewish country being taken to their logical extreme that that Jewish country, the State of Israel, was declared just three years following the end of World War II, on May 14, 148.

World War II

The events of World War II had a major impact on the future State of Israel. From an Israeli perspective, the most significant event of World War II was the Holocaust.

Just prior to the Holocaust, many Jews tried to escape from Germany. Many attempted to get into the United States, but they were turned down. The same thing happened in other countries. As a result, they were forced to return and eventually perished in the Death Camps. Others tried to immigrate to Israel (Palestine), but the British (who had were in charge of a Mandate government in the region) purposely instituted policies that made it quite difficult for many Jews to immigrate to Israel.

In 1, the British government put forth a new White Paper in an attempt to appease the local Arab population. Among other things, the White Paper of 1 put significant restrictions on the numbers of Jews who would be allowed to immigrate to Israel; for all intents and purposes the White Paper closed the gates to Jewish immigration.

Jews living in Israel thus faced a serious dilemma on the one hand, they wanted to assist the British in their efforts to fight the Nazis in Europe; on the other hand, however, they wanted to fight the British efforts in Israel to prevent Jewish immigration. This love/hate attitude toward the British was best summed up by future Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion - at the time, the Chairman of the Jewish Agency Executive We will fight Hitler as if no White Paper existed and we will fight the White Paper as if Hitler did not exist. Thus, Jews would assist the British in Europe, but they would reserve a right to fight against the British in Israel.

One of the most famous Jews who fought in Europe was Hanna Senesh, an immigrant from Hungary who came to Israel in 1. Although she enrolled in the Nahalal Agricultural School and intended to become a farmer on a kibbutz, history had other plans for her. Just a few short years after her arrival in Israel, Senesh - along with the rest of the world - began to learn of the Nazi Holocaust back in Europe. She soon volunteered to serve in an elite unit of Jewish paratroopers. After undergoing grueling commando training, Senesh was chosen, along with 1 other volunteers, to parachute into Europe to fight the Nazis head-on.

In January 144, she parachuted into Yugoslavia and crossed into Hungary. Unfortunately, Hungarian Partisans, known for their anti-Semitism, caught her. The Partisans turned her over to the Nazis. For five months, she was held in a Gestapo jail in Budapest, where she was severely tortured. As hard as they tried, however, the Nazis could not break her. Finally, on November 7, 144, Senesh was executed by a firing squad; she refused to be blindfolded. Hanah Senesh was reburied in Jerusalem in 150.

Meanwhile, back in Israel, the majorities of the Irgun (the Jewish National Military Organization, or Irgun Tzvah Leumi - commonly abbreviated Etzel) decided to cease fighting against the British and, instead, assist them in Europe. However, Avraham Stern led a small faction of the Irgun against the British. Stern believed that the war in Europe was so important to the British that they would be more than willing to make concessions to Jews in Israel if this proved necessary. He even negotiated with the Germans and the Italians!

Soon, Stern found it necessary to break with the Irgun altogether. He formed the LEHI (Lochamei Cherut Yisrael - Freedom Fighters of Israel), also known as the Stern Gang. The British did everything possible to track LEHI members. Finally, in 14, the British arrested Stern himself and killed him shortly thereafter. This only served to make Stern a martyr to LEHI members, and their resolve to attack the British was strengthened with Sterns death.

Meanwhile, at about the same time as Sterns death, Irgun leader David Raziel was killed in Iraq while on a mission for the British. He was replaced with future Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin. By 144, it had become clear that the Allies would win the War. Consequently, on February 1, Begin announced that the Irgun was resuming its fight against the British.

As the world outside of Germany began to learn the gruesome details of the Holocaust, the Jews of Israel increased their pressure on the British to rescind the White Paper and allow Holocaust survivors to come to Israel. The British, however, refused to cooperate. As a result, the struggle against the British intensified - especially from the LEHI, whose members considered any British policeman or soldier a legitimate target.

With more and more British being killed in Israel, the people of the United Kingdom increased their demands that the British pull out of Israel altogether. The British finally gave up, returning the Mandate for Palestine to the United Nations in 147.

For many Jews, the events of World War II underscored the need for a safe haven for Jews, so that they would never again be without a place to flee from anti-Semitism in the Diaspora. Consequently, the State of Israel was founded in 148, just three years after World War II ended.

The Arab-Israel Conflict Prior to the State of Israel’s Establishment

After World War I, the League of Nations gave France and the United Kingdom control of the region that had been liberated from the Ottoman Empire France was given Lebanon and Syria, while the UK was given Iraq and Palestine (modern-day Israel � including Gaza and the West Bank � and Jordan). The stated reason for the French and British presence was to prepare the regions in question for independence.

In Palestine, the Jewish population was increasing rapidly. Under the leadership of future Israeli Prime Minister David Ben-Gurion, large tracts of land were purchased from Arabs, many of who resided abroad. Alarmed at their ever-shrinking majority, the Arabs in Palestine began to take defensive measures. Palestinian Arab nationalist organizations were set up, including the Higher Arab Council, which attempted to influence British policy and to counter the activities of the Zionists. Haj Amin al-Husseini, the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, tried to garner foreign support for the cessation of Zionist activity and for the conclusion of the British mandate. The British, in an effort to win Arab support, issued several White Papers, which restricted Jewish immigration. Palestinian Jews, however, fought the White Papers by helping European Jews immigrate to Palestine illegally.

The State of Israel’s independence only served to exacerbate the already serious conflict between the Jews and the Arabs. Indeed, as the British were preparing to leave Palestine, both Arabs and Jews were already purchasing arms abroad, in preparation for the war that both sides knew was about to ensue. On April , 148, the Jewish LEHI and Irgun forces attacked Dayr Yasin, a Palestinian village that had signed a non-aggression pact with the far less aggressive Hagana. Many men, women, and children were killed in the ensuing attack, although it is not clear exactly how many were actually killed. It has traditionally been reported that approximately 50 people were killed at Dayr Yasin. This figure is based on the number reported in local newspapers at the time. However, a new study put out by Bir Zeit University puts the number of people killed at a maximum of 10. (See Prusher, Ilene R., Dispute Over 148 Killings Brings Troubled History to Light, Christian Science Monitor, April 6, 18.)

On May 15, 148, the day after Israel was declared an independent state, a military force made up of the combined armies of Lebanon, Syria, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, and Jordan attacked it. Although few thought it possible, Israel emerged from this war as the victor; by the time the war ended in 14, Israel had acquired parts of the West Bank and northern Palestine - both of which the UN had reserved for the Palestinian Arabs - in addition to the land that had been allocated to Israel. Furthermore, Jordan had acquired the rest of the West Bank and East Jerusalem, and Egypt had acquired the Gaza Strip - all of which had also been reserved for the Palestinians. The two sides under different names thus remember the war Israelis refer to it as the War of Independence, while Palestinian Arabs call it Al Nakba (The Catastrophe).

The Sinai Campaign

In 15, Colonel Gamal Abd al-Nasser seized power in Egypt in a bloodless coup. As a leader, Nasser espoused what has become known as Nasserism, the major goal of which was to unify all Arabs into a single state. Fearing the loss of access to Arabian oil that could ensue if Nasserism spread, the United States and other countries attempted to weaken Nasser. In 156, the U.S. retracted its offer to finance Egypt’s Aswan Dam. In response, Nasser nationalized the strategically important Suez Canal, which had been under British control since 17. In order to help Britain to regain the Canal, the U.K., France, and Israel decided upon a military strategy with French support, the Israelis would attack Egypt, and then a peacekeeping force from France and the U.K. would enter Egypt, thereby ensuring Western control over the region. Although the campaign went according to plan, the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. pressured France, Britain, and Israel to withdraw their troops. When the three countries eventually did so, Arabs honored Nasser as a leader who had saved the Arab world.

The Creation of the PLO

Driven by his dream to unite the Arabs into a single nation, Nasser convinced Syria, in 158, to join Egypt in the formation of the United Arab Republic (UAR). However, this success was short-lived three years later, Syria, annoyed by what it saw as Egypt’s domination in the UAR, withdrew from the United Arab Republic. Nonetheless, Nasser continued to be a key player in Arab affairs, and, in 164, he hosted two Arab summits; at one of the summits, the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) was born. Based in Egypt, the PLO was to become a key player in Palestinian Arab affairs. Even in the Organization’s infancy, Yasser Arafat, a Palestinian nationalist and the PLO’s future leader, was already the leader of a small PLO faction called FATAH (Opening in Arabic, as in creating an OPENING back to Palestine).

The Six-Day War

Soon after its creation, the PLO began to sponsor attacks on Israel from several fronts. Israel retaliated by attacking Palestinian refugee camps on all the fronts from which the PLO attacks were launched, including Israel’s northern border, which served to exacerbate Israel’s already tense relations with Syria. Finally, in April 167, the Syrian and Israeli air forces fought one another. On May , Nasser blockaded the Straits of Tiran, even though Israeli Prime Minister Levi Eshkol had warned him that such an act would be viewed as an act of war. With the atmosphere of war once again developing, Iraq, Syria, and Jordan sent their respective troops to the Israeli borders.

On June 5, Israel launched a successful preemptive strike against Egyptian air fields in Sinai, effectively destroying the entire Egyptian air force while the latter’s planes were still on the ground. Although Eshkol attempted to convince Jordan’s King Hussein to refrain from involving Jordan in the war, the former was unsuccessful. As a result, Jordan lost East Jerusalem to Israel on June 7.

Attack on the USS Liberty

On June 8, the Israeli military attacked the U.S. Intelligence ship USS Liberty. In the attack, which lasted for 75 minutes, thirty-four American personnel on board the Liberty lost their lives; 171 others were wounded. Israel says its soldiers mistook the Liberty for the Egyptian horse carrier El Quseir. Proponents of this view point out that the United States was Israels only ally; thus, it would have been very much against Israels interest to attack an American vessel. They also emphasize that, although the U.S. flag was clearly visible from the Liberty, and it was a bright, sunny day, mistakes such as these are not uncommon in military engagements. For example, in April 14, the U.S. Air Force accidentally shot down two U.S. Black Hawk helicopters in the No-Fly Zone in Iraq, despite the fact that both Black Hawks had large U.S. flags painted on each side.

However, according to others, the attack on the Liberty was no accident. Proponents of this view emphasize that the U.S. flag was clearly visible from the ship, as mentioned above. They also point out that the El Quseir was significantly smaller than the Liberty, making it difficult to mistake one for the other. Additionally, they say that Israel attacked the Liberty in order to prevent a leakage of information about Israels plans to attack the Golan Heights. According to Admiral Thomas Moorer, Israel was preparing to seize the Golan Heights from Syria despite President Johnsons known opposition to such a move.... I believe Moshe Dayan [, the Israeli Minister of Defense,] concluded that he could prevent Washington from becoming aware of what Israel was up to by destroying the primary source of acquiring that information - the USS Liberty. (See The Link, July-August 17.)

The War Comes to An End

The following day, on June , a cease-fire was signed. All sides involved in the conflict agreed to its terms, and the Six-Day War was concluded.

UN Security Council Resolution 4

Israel had gained a great deal of land in the Six-Day War from Jordan, it had gained East Jerusalem, which was quickly annexed into the capital city of West Jerusalem, and the West Bank; from Syria, it had gained the Golan Heights, and from Egypt, it had gained the Gaza Strip and the entire Sinai Peninsula. In response, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 4 on November , 167. Resolution 4 demanded the Withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict [the Six-Day War] and the Termination of all claims or states of belligerency and respect for and acknowledgement of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of every State in the area and their right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force (i.e., the recognition of the State of Israel by its neighbors). Resolution 4 was not immediately implemented.

UN Security Council Resolution 4

Israel had gained a great deal of land in the Six-Day War from Jordan, it had gained East Jerusalem, which was quickly annexed into the capital city of West Jerusalem, and the West Bank; from Syria, it had gained the Golan Heights, and from Egypt, it had gained the Gaza Strip and the entire Sinai Peninsula. In response, the UN Security Council passed Resolution 4 on November , 167. Resolution 4 demanded the Withdrawal of Israeli armed forces from territories occupied in the recent conflict [the Six-Day War] and the Termination of all claims or states of belligerency and respect for and acknowledgement of the sovereignty, territorial integrity and political independence of every State in the area and their right to live in peace within secure and recognized boundaries free from threats or acts of force (i.e., the recognition of the State of Israel by its neighbors). Resolution 4 was not immediately implemented.

The Yom Kippur War

A war Sadat, Nasser’s successor, came to power in an Egypt that had serious financial troubles, not the least of which were those brought about by the country’s defeat in the Six-Day War. The Sinai oil fields appeared to be a way to alleviate these troubles, but Israel had captured the Sinai Peninsula in 167. Concluding that negotiation with Israel was not an option, Sadat prepared to attack Israel.

On October 6, 17, Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel. The day was well chosen, for it was Yom Kippur (Day of Atonement), the holiest day in the Jewish calendar, and the Israelis were thus quite unprepared for war. For the first three days of the war, the Israelis seemed to have been defeated. However, the U.S. provided Israel with military aid, and, over the course of the next few weeks, the Israelis succeeded in pushing back the Syrians and the Egyptians.

On October , the UN Security Council passed Resolution 8. According to the Resolution, The Security Council (1) Calls upon all parties to present fighting to cease all firing and terminate all military activity immediately… () Calls upon all parties concerned to start immediately after the cease-fire the implementation of Security Council Resolution 4 (167) in all of its parts; () Decided that, immediately and concurrently with the cease-fire, negotiations start between the parties concerned under appropriate auspices aimed at establishing a just and durable peace in the Middle East. However, the peace negotiations demanded by Resolution 8 would not begin for a little under a decade.

The Yom Kippur War formally ended with the Sinai I and II agreements, negotiated by U.S. Secretary of State Henry Kissenger. In accordance with the agreements, Israel returned a great deal of the Sinai to Egypt.

The PLO Becomes the Representative of the Palestinian People

King Hussein was dealt a major blow when the Arab League, in October of 174, declared that the PLO, not Jordan, was the sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people. Although he was reluctant to accept the Arab League’s declaration, Hussein eventually did so, likely influenced by the fact that twenty other Arab states had already agreed to grant the PLO representation in the League. A month later, the UN General Assembly gave the PLO observer status in the United Nations.

Peace Achieved Between Israel and Egypt

On November 1, 177, Egyptian President Anwar Sadat visited Jerusalem and spoke at the Israeli parliament, the Knesset, emphasizing the need for Israeli peace with Egypt and the Palestinians (i.e., through the creation of a Palestinian state). On September 17, 178, a peace treaty was signed between Israel and Egypt at Camp David, in the United States. Known as the Camp David Accords, the treaty states that [T] he parties are determined to reach a just, comprehensive, and durable settlement of the Middle East conflict through the conclusion of peace treaties based on Security Council resolutions 4 and 8 in all their parts. It is interesting to note that the Accords assume from the outset that Israel will eventually sign peace treaties with Jordan and the Palestinians and thus involve the latter two sides in future negotiations. For example, negotiations regarding the establishment of a self-governing administrative council in the West Bank and Gaza are to be conducted among Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and the elected representatives of the inhabitants of the West Bank and Gaza [i.e., the Palestinians].

In January of 180, Israel and Egypt formally established diplomatic relations. Some Egyptians were greatly upset by this change in Egypt’s political direction, notably members of the then-unknown Organization of Liberation of Egypt. On October 6, 181, three Egyptian soldiers assassinated Sadat; the Organization claimed responsibility. A week later, Hosni Mubarak became president of Egypt, vowing to continue Sadat’s policies. A year later, in accordance with the Camp David Accords, Israel withdrew from the entire Sinai Peninsula, with the exception of Taba, next to the Israeli resort city of Eilat. Finally, in 18, Israel withdrew from Taba. The Hilton Hotel, which had been built in Israeli Taba, remains in use to this day in Egyptian Taba. After Egypt regained Taba, a casino was added to the Hilton.

Peace Between Israel and PLO

On September 1, 1, Israel signed a Declaration of Principles with the PLO, thereby officially (although not necessarily de facto) putting an end to hostilities between the two sides. The Declaration of Principles set up transitional PLO jurisdiction in the West Bank and the Gaza Strip and began a five-year transitional period at the end of which Israel would withdraw from Gaza and Jericho. The Declaration also stipulated that permanent status negotiations were to commence three years later over such issues as the final status of Jerusalem � which both Israel and the Palestinians claimed as a capital � Palestinian refugees, Jewish settlements in the West Bank and Gaza, security arrangements, borders, relations and cooperation with other neighbors, and other issues of common interest. According to Annex IV, Part B, Item 8, The Regional Economic Development Program [to be set up between Israel and the PLO] may consist of… [a] Regional Tourism, Transportation, and Telecommunications Development Plan.

On August , 14, Israel and the PLO signed the Agreement on Preparatory Transfer of Powers and Responsibilities. According to Article II, Item 1, Israel shall transfer and the Palestinian Authority shall assume powers and responsibilities from the Israeli military government and its Civil Administration in the West Bank in the following spheres education and culture, health, social welfare, tourism, direct taxation and Value Added Tax on local production…. According to Annex IV, which is entitled Protocol Concerning Preparatory Transfer of Powers and Responsibilities in the Sphere of Tourism, Israel was to hand over responsibility for tourism in Palestinian areas to the Palestinian Authority (PA). The Annex covers tourism activities conducted by private, public, non-governmental and foreign bodies. The Annex also states The tourism authorities of Israel and the Palestinian Authority shall promote and encourage tourism to the region for the benefit of both sides. Thus, travel companies authorized by the PA were allowed to conduct tours that included Israel in their packages, and clearly marked tourist vehicles originating in PA-controlled areas were allowed to proceed into Israel.

Israel-Jordan Peace Treaty

On October 6, 14, King Hussein’s dream of establishing peace with Israel became a reality. The treaty was especially relevant for tourism. According to Annex V, the Israeli/Jordanian border is to be open in both directions for Israelis, Jordanians, and third country nationals. Existing arrangements are to remain in place for Muslim Israelis who cross into Jordan in transit to Saudi Arabia (which has yet to recognize the State of Israel) for Muslim pilgrimages. Also, border-crossing points are to be open from 800 AM to 60 PM (but closed on Yom Kippur and on the first day of the Muslim Al Hijrah calendar). By contrast, Israel’s widely used Eilat/Taba border is open 4 hours, thus making it far more comfortable and convenient for tourists to cross the border between Israel and Egypt than the border between Israel and Jordan.

Although very little was done in the way of land transfers, one particular transfer is worth mentioning the area on the northern Jordanian/Israeli border known in Israel as Naharayim and in Jordan as Baqura, some of which came under Jordanian sovereignty. Israeli landowners, however, along with their employees and guests, were permitted to go in and out as often as they wished, with no customs or immigration restrictions of any kind. In a very unusual move, the Annex declares that, while the land is under Jordanian sovereignty, the Israeli police department has jurisdiction over incidents solely involving the [Israeli] landowners, their invitees or employees. Further, Jordanian law does not apply to activities in which only Israelis are involved. Land purchases by non-Israelis, however, can only be done with Jordanian approval.

The Naharayim/Baqura region is known for its beautiful nature trails. The peace treaty is thus important in that it eases access to the area for tourists coming from both Jordan and Israel. According to an account by Haim Shapiro, During a recent tour of the site… we entered the Jordanian area without visas, having only registered our Israeli identity cards with the Israeli police post. A Jordanian officer briefly boarded our bus and in fluent Hebrew asked whether he could wish us Shabbat Shalom even if it was only noon Friday. As we toured the area in our Israeli bus, a Jordanian bus entered the area from the other side. The passengers in each waved to each other. (Haim Shapiro, Day Tripper Down by the Riverside, The Jerusalem Post, March 1, 17.)



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